Release: 1.2.8 | Release Date: May 28, 2018

# SQLAlchemy 1.2 Documentation

# Additional Persistence Techniques

## Embedding SQL Insert/Update Expressions into a Flush

This feature allows the value of a database column to be set to a SQL expression instead of a literal value. It’s especially useful for atomic updates, calling stored procedures, etc. All you do is assign an expression to an attribute:

    class SomeClass(object):
        pass
    mapper(SomeClass, some_table)

    someobject = session.query(SomeClass).get(5)

    # set 'value' attribute to a SQL expression adding one
    someobject.value = some_table.c.value + 1

    # issues "UPDATE some_table SET value=value+1"
    session.commit()

This technique works both for INSERT and UPDATE statements. After the flush/commit operation, the `value` attribute on `someobject` above is expired, so that when next accessed the newly generated value will be loaded from the database.

## Using SQL Expressions with Sessions

SQL expressions and strings can be executed via the `Session` within its transactional context. This is most easily accomplished using the `execute()` method, which returns a `ResultProxy` in the same manner as an `Engine` or `Connection`:

    Session = sessionmaker(bind=engine)
    session = Session()

    # execute a string statement
    result = session.execute("select * from table where id=:id", {'id':7})

    # execute a SQL expression construct
    result = session.execute(select([mytable]).where(mytable.c.id==7))

The current `Connection` held by the `Session` is accessible using the `connection()` method:

    connection = session.connection()

The examples above deal with a `Session` that’s bound to a single `Engine` or `Connection`. To execute statements using a `Session` which is bound either to multiple engines, or none at all (i.e. relies upon bound metadata), both `execute()` and `connection()` accept a `mapper` keyword argument, which is passed a mapped class or `Mapper` instance, which is used to locate the proper context for the desired engine:

    Session = sessionmaker()
    session = Session()

    # need to specify mapper or class when executing
    result = session.execute("select * from table where id=:id", {'id':7}, mapper=MyMappedClass)

    result = session.execute(select([mytable], mytable.c.id==7), mapper=MyMappedClass)

    connection = session.connection(MyMappedClass)

## Forcing NULL on a column with a default

The ORM considers any attribute that was never set on an object as a “default” case; the attribute will be omitted from the INSERT statement:

    class MyObject(Base):
        __tablename__ = 'my_table'
        id = Column(Integer, primary_key=True)
        data = Column(String(50), nullable=True)

    obj = MyObject(id=1)
    session.add(obj)
    session.commit()  # INSERT with the 'data' column omitted; the database
                      # itself will persist this as the NULL value

Omitting a column from the INSERT means that the column will have the NULL value set, unless the column has a default set up, in which case the default value will be persisted. This holds true both from a pure SQL perspective with server-side defaults, as well as the behavior of SQLAlchemy’s insert behavior with both client-side and server-side defaults:

    class MyObject(Base):
        __tablename__ = 'my_table'
        id = Column(Integer, primary_key=True)
        data = Column(String(50), nullable=True, server_default="default")

    obj = MyObject(id=1)
    session.add(obj)
    session.commit()  # INSERT with the 'data' column omitted; the database
                      # itself will persist this as the value 'default'

However, in the ORM, even if one assigns the Python value `None` explicitly to the object, this is treated the same as though the value were never assigned:

    class MyObject(Base):
        __tablename__ = 'my_table'
        id = Column(Integer, primary_key=True)
        data = Column(String(50), nullable=True, server_default="default")

    obj = MyObject(id=1, data=None)
    session.add(obj)
    session.commit()  # INSERT with the 'data' column explicitly set to None;
                      # the ORM still omits it from the statement and the
                      # database will still persist this as the value 'default'

The above operation will persist into the `data` column the server default value of `"default"` and not SQL NULL, even though `None` was passed; this is a long-standing behavior of the ORM that many applications hold as an assumption.

So what if we want to actually put NULL into this column, even though the column has a default value? There are two approaches. One is that on a per-instance level, we assign the attribute using the `null` SQL construct:

    from sqlalchemy import null

    obj = MyObject(id=1, data=null())
    session.add(obj)
    session.commit()  # INSERT with the 'data' column explicitly set as null();
                      # the ORM uses this directly, bypassing all client-
                      # and server-side defaults, and the database will
                      # persist this as the NULL value

The `null` SQL construct always translates into the SQL NULL value being directly present in the target INSERT statement.

If we’d like to be able to use the Python value `None` and have this also be persisted as NULL despite the presence of column defaults, we can configure this for the ORM using a Core-level modifier `TypeEngine.evaluates_none()`, which indicates a type where the ORM should treat the value `None` the same as any other value and pass it through, rather than omitting it as a “missing” value:

    class MyObject(Base):
        __tablename__ = 'my_table'
        id = Column(Integer, primary_key=True)
        data = Column(
          String(50).evaluates_none(),  # indicate that None should always be passed
          nullable=True, server_default="default")

    obj = MyObject(id=1, data=None)
    session.add(obj)
    session.commit()  # INSERT with the 'data' column explicitly set to None;
                      # the ORM uses this directly, bypassing all client-
                      # and server-side defaults, and the database will
                      # persist this as the NULL value

Evaluating None

The `TypeEngine.evaluates_none()` modifier is primarily intended to signal a type where the Python value “None” is significant, the primary example being a JSON type which may want to persist the JSON `null` value rather than SQL NULL. We are slightly repurposing it here in order to signal to the ORM that we’d like `None` to be passed into the type whenever present, even though no special type-level behaviors are assigned to it.

New in version 1.1: added the `TypeEngine.evaluates_none()` method in order to indicate that a “None” value should be treated as significant.

## Partitioning Strategies

### Simple Vertical Partitioning

Vertical partitioning places different kinds of objects, or different tables, across multiple databases:

    engine1 = create_engine('postgresql://db1')
    engine2 = create_engine('postgresql://db2')

    Session = sessionmaker(twophase=True)

    # bind User operations to engine 1, Account operations to engine 2
    Session.configure(binds={User:engine1, Account:engine2})

    session = Session()

Above, operations against either class will make usage of the `Engine` linked to that class. Upon a flush operation, similar rules take place to ensure each class is written to the right database.

The transactions among the multiple databases can optionally be coordinated via two phase commit, if the underlying backend supports it. See Enabling Two-Phase Commit for an example.

### Custom Vertical Partitioning

More comprehensive rule-based class-level partitioning can be built by overriding the `Session.get_bind()` method. Below we illustrate a custom `Session` which delivers the following rules:

1. Flush operations are delivered to the engine named `master`.
2. Operations on objects that subclass `MyOtherClass` all occur on the `other` engine.
3. Read operations for all other classes occur on a random choice of the `slave1` or `slave2` database.

    engines = {
        'master':create_engine("sqlite:///master.db"),
        'other':create_engine("sqlite:///other.db"),
        'slave1':create_engine("sqlite:///slave1.db"),
        'slave2':create_engine("sqlite:///slave2.db"),
    }

    from sqlalchemy.orm import Session, sessionmaker
    import random

    class RoutingSession(Session):
        def get_bind(self, mapper=None, clause=None):
            if mapper and issubclass(mapper.class_, MyOtherClass):
                return engines['other']
            elif self._flushing:
                return engines['master']
            else:
                return engines[
                    random.choice(['slave1','slave2'])
                ]

The above `Session` class is plugged in using the `class_` argument to `sessionmaker`:

    Session = sessionmaker(class_=RoutingSession)

This approach can be combined with multiple `MetaData` objects, using an approach such as that of using the declarative `__abstract__` keyword, described at __abstract__.

### Horizontal Partitioning

Horizontal partitioning partitions the rows of a single table (or a set of tables) across multiple databases.

See the “sharding” example: Horizontal Sharding.

## Bulk Operations

Note

Bulk Operations mode is a new series of operations made available on the `Session` object for the purpose of invoking INSERT and UPDATE statements with greatly reduced Python overhead, at the expense of much less functionality, automation, and error checking. As of SQLAlchemy 1.0, these features should be considered as “beta”, and additionally are intended for advanced users.

New in version 1.0.0.

Bulk operations on the `Session` include `Session.bulk_save_objects()`, `Session.bulk_insert_mappings()`, and `Session.bulk_update_mappings()`. The purpose of these methods is to directly expose internal elements of the unit of work system, such that facilities for emitting INSERT and UPDATE statements given dictionaries or object states can be utilized alone, bypassing the normal unit of work mechanics of state, relationship and attribute management. The advantages to this approach is strictly one of reduced Python overhead:

- The flush() process, including the survey of all objects, their state, their cascade status, the status of all objects associated with them via `relationship()`, and the topological sort of all operations to be performed is completely bypassed. This reduces a great amount of Python overhead.
- The objects as given have no defined relationship to the target `Session`, even when the operation is complete, meaning there’s no overhead in attaching them or managing their state in terms of the identity map or session.
- The `Session.bulk_insert_mappings()` and `Session.bulk_update_mappings()` methods accept lists of plain Python dictionaries, not objects; this further reduces a large amount of overhead associated with instantiating mapped objects and assigning state to them, which normally is also subject to expensive tracking of history on a per-attribute basis.
- The set of objects passed to all bulk methods are processed in the order they are received. In the case of `Session.bulk_save_objects()`, when objects of different types are passed, the INSERT and UPDATE statements are necessarily broken up into per-type groups. In order to reduce the number of batch INSERT or UPDATE statements passed to the DBAPI, ensure that the incoming list of objects are grouped by type.
- The process of fetching primary keys after an INSERT also is disabled by default. When performed correctly, INSERT statements can now more readily be batched by the unit of work process into `executemany()` blocks, which perform vastly better than individual statement invocations.
- UPDATE statements can similarly be tailored such that all attributes are subject to the SET clase unconditionally, again making it much more likely that `executemany()` blocks can be used.

The performance behavior of the bulk routines should be studied using the Performance example suite. This is a series of example scripts which illustrate Python call-counts across a variety of scenarios, including bulk insert and update scenarios.

See also

Performance - includes detailed examples of bulk operations contrasted against traditional Core and ORM methods, including performance metrics.

### Usage

The methods each work in the context of the `Session` object’s transaction, like any other:

    s = Session()
    objects = [
        User(name="u1"),
        User(name="u2"),
        User(name="u3")
    ]
    s.bulk_save_objects(objects)

For `Session.bulk_insert_mappings()`, and `Session.bulk_update_mappings()`, dictionaries are passed:

    s.bulk_insert_mappings(User,
      [dict(name="u1"), dict(name="u2"), dict(name="u3")]
    )

See also

`Session.bulk_save_objects()`

`Session.bulk_insert_mappings()`

`Session.bulk_update_mappings()`

### Comparison to Core Insert / Update Constructs

The bulk methods offer performance that under particular circumstances can be close to that of using the core `Insert` and `Update` constructs in an “executemany” context (for a description of “executemany”, see Executing Multiple Statements in the Core tutorial). In order to achieve this, the `Session.bulk_insert_mappings.return_defaults` flag should be disabled so that rows can be batched together. The example suite in Performance should be carefully studied in order to gain familiarity with how fast bulk performance can be achieved.

### ORM Compatibility

The bulk insert / update methods lose a significant amount of functionality versus traditional ORM use. The following is a listing of features that are not available when using these methods:

- persistence along `relationship()` linkages
- sorting of rows within order of dependency; rows are inserted or updated directly in the order in which they are passed to the methods
- Session-management on the given objects, including attachment to the session, identity map management.
- Functionality related to primary key mutation, ON UPDATE cascade
- SQL expression inserts / updates (e.g. Embedding SQL Insert/Update Expressions into a Flush)
- ORM events such as `MapperEvents.before_insert()`, etc. The bulk session methods have no event support.

Features that are available include:

- INSERTs and UPDATEs of mapped objects
- Version identifier support
- Multi-table mappings, such as joined-inheritance - however, an object to be inserted across multiple tables either needs to have primary key identifiers fully populated ahead of time, else the `Session.bulk_save_objects.return_defaults` flag must be used, which will greatly reduce the performance benefits