Release: 1.2.8 | Release Date: May 28, 2018

# SQLAlchemy 1.2 Documentation

# Column and Data Types

SQLAlchemy provides abstractions for most common database data types, and a mechanism for specifying your own custom data types.

The methods and attributes of type objects are rarely used directly. Type objects are supplied to `Table` definitions and can be supplied as type hints to functions for occasions where the database driver returns an incorrect type.

    >>> users = Table('users', metadata,
    ...               Column('id', Integer, primary_key=True)
    ...               Column('login', String(32))
    ...              )

SQLAlchemy will use the `Integer` and `String(32)` type information when issuing a `CREATE TABLE` statement and will use it again when reading back rows `SELECTed` from the database. Functions that accept a type (such as `Column()`) will typically accept a type class or instance; `Integer` is equivalent to `Integer()` with no construction arguments in this case.

## Generic Types

Generic types specify a column that can read, write and store a particular type of Python data. SQLAlchemy will choose the best database column type available on the target database when issuing a `CREATE TABLE` statement. For complete control over which column type is emitted in `CREATE TABLE`, such as `VARCHAR` see SQL Standard and Multiple Vendor Types and the other sections of this chapter.

class `sqlalchemy.types.``BigInteger`

  Bases: `sqlalchemy.types.Integer`

  A type for bigger `int` integers.

  Typically generates a `BIGINT` in DDL, and otherwise acts like a normal `Integer` on the Python side.

class `sqlalchemy.types.``Boolean`(create_constraint=True, name=None, _create_events=True)

  Bases: `sqlalchemy.types.Emulated`, `sqlalchemy.types.TypeEngine`, `sqlalchemy.types.SchemaType`

  A bool datatype.

  `Boolean` typically uses BOOLEAN or SMALLINT on the DDL side, and on the Python side deals in `True` or `False`.

  The `Boolean` datatype currently has two levels of assertion that the values persisted are simple true/false values. For all backends, only the Python values `None`, `True`, `False`, `1` or `0` are accepted as parameter values. For those backends that don’t support a “native boolean” datatype, a CHECK constraint is also created on the target column. Production of the CHECK constraint can be disabled by passing the `Boolean.create_constraint` flag set to `False`.

  Changed in version 1.2: the `Boolean` datatype now asserts that incoming Python values are already in pure boolean form.

  `__init__`(create_constraint=True, name=None, _create_events=True)

    Construct a Boolean.

    Parameters:

    - create_constraint – defaults to True. If the boolean is generated as an int/smallint, also create a CHECK constraint on the table that ensures 1 or 0 as a value.
    - name – if a CHECK constraint is generated, specify the name of the constraint.

  `bind_processor`(dialect)

    Return a conversion function for processing bind values.

    Returns a callable which will receive a bind parameter value as the sole positional argument and will return a value to send to the DB-API.

    If processing is not necessary, the method should return `None`.

    Parameters: | dialect – Dialect instance in use.

  `literal_processor`(dialect)

    Return a conversion function for processing literal values that are to be rendered directly without using binds.

    This function is used when the compiler makes use of the “literal_binds” flag, typically used in DDL generation as well as in certain scenarios where backends don’t accept bound parameters.

    New in version 0.9.0.

  `python_type`

    Return the Python type object expected to be returned by instances of this type, if known.

    Basically, for those types which enforce a return type, or are known across the board to do such for all common DBAPIs (like `int` for example), will return that type.

    If a return type is not defined, raises `NotImplementedError`.

    Note that any type also accommodates NULL in SQL which means you can also get back `None` from any type in practice.

  `result_processor`(dialect, coltype)

    Return a conversion function for processing result row values.

    Returns a callable which will receive a result row column value as the sole positional argument and will return a value to return to the user.

    If processing is not necessary, the method should return `None`.

    Parameters:

    - dialect – Dialect instance in use.
    - coltype – DBAPI coltype argument received in cursor.description.

class `sqlalchemy.types.``Date`

  Bases: `sqlalchemy.types._LookupExpressionAdapter`, `sqlalchemy.types.TypeEngine`

  A type for `datetime.date()` objects.

  `get_dbapi_type`(dbapi)

    Return the corresponding type object from the underlying DB-API, if any.

    > This can be useful for calling `setinputsizes()`, for example.

  `python_type`

    Return the Python type object expected to be returned by instances of this type, if known.

    Basically, for those types which enforce a return type, or are known across the board to do such for all common DBAPIs (like `int` for example), will return that type.

    If a return type is not defined, raises `NotImplementedError`.

    Note that any type also accommodates NULL in SQL which means you can also get back `None` from any type in practice.

class `sqlalchemy.types.``DateTime`(timezone=False)

  Bases: `sqlalchemy.types._LookupExpressionAdapter`, `sqlalchemy.types.TypeEngine`

  A type for `datetime.datetime()` objects.

  Date and time types return objects from the Python `datetime` module. Most DBAPIs have built in support for the datetime module, with the noted exception of SQLite. In the case of SQLite, date and time types are stored as strings which are then converted back to datetime objects when rows are returned.

  For the time representation within the datetime type, some backends include additional options, such as timezone support and fractional seconds support. For fractional seconds, use the dialect-specific datatype, such as `mysql.TIME`. For timezone support, use at least the `TIMESTAMP` datatype, if not the dialect-specific datatype object.

  `__init__`(timezone=False)

    Construct a new `DateTime`.

    Parameters: | timezone – boolean. Indicates that the datetime type should enable timezone support, if available on the base date/time-holding type only. It is recommended to make use of the `TIMESTAMP` datatype directly when using this flag, as some databases include separate generic date/time-holding types distinct from the timezone-capable TIMESTAMP datatype, such as Oracle.

  `get_dbapi_type`(dbapi)

    Return the corresponding type object from the underlying DB-API, if any.

    > This can be useful for calling `setinputsizes()`, for example.

  `python_type`

    Return the Python type object expected to be returned by instances of this type, if known.

    Basically, for those types which enforce a return type, or are known across the board to do such for all common DBAPIs (like `int` for example), will return that type.

    If a return type is not defined, raises `NotImplementedError`.

    Note that any type also accommodates NULL in SQL which means you can also get back `None` from any type in practice.

class `sqlalchemy.types.``Enum`(*enums, **kw)

  Bases: `sqlalchemy.types.Emulated`, `sqlalchemy.types.String`, `sqlalchemy.types.SchemaType`

  Generic Enum Type.

  The `Enum` type provides a set of possible string values which the column is constrained towards.

  The `Enum` type will make use of the backend’s native “ENUM” type if one is available; otherwise, it uses a VARCHAR datatype and produces a CHECK constraint. Use of the backend-native enum type can be disabled using the `Enum.native_enum` flag, and the production of the CHECK constraint is configurable using the `Enum.create_constraint` flag.

  The `Enum` type also provides in-Python validation of string values during both read and write operations. When reading a value from the database in a result set, the string value is always checked against the list of possible values and a `LookupError` is raised if no match is found. When passing a value to the database as a plain string within a SQL statement, if the `Enum.validate_strings` parameter is set to True, a `LookupError` is raised for any string value that’s not located in the given list of possible values; note that this impacts usage of LIKE expressions with enumerated values (an unusual use case).

  Changed in version 1.1: the `Enum` type now provides in-Python validation of input values as well as on data being returned by the database.

  The source of enumerated values may be a list of string values, or alternatively a PEP-435-compliant enumerated class. For the purposes of the `Enum` datatype, this class need only provide a `__members__` method.

  When using an enumerated class, the enumerated objects are used both for input and output, rather than strings as is the case with a plain-string enumerated type:

      import enum
      class MyEnum(enum.Enum):
          one = 1
          two = 2
          three = 3

      t = Table(
          'data', MetaData(),
          Column('value', Enum(MyEnum))
      )

      connection.execute(t.insert(), {"value": MyEnum.two})
      assert connection.scalar(t.select()) is MyEnum.two

  Above, the string names of each element, e.g. “one”, “two”, “three”, are persisted to the database; the values of the Python Enum, here indicated as integers, are not used; the value of each enum can therefore be any kind of Python object whether or not it is persistable.

  In order to persist the values and not the names, the `Enum.values_callable` parameter may be used. The value of this parameter is a user-supplied callable, which is intended to be used with a PEP-435-compliant enumerated class and returns a list of string values to be persisted. For a simple enumeration that uses string values, a callable such as `lambda x: [e.value for e in x]` is sufficient.

  New in version 1.1: - support for PEP-435-style enumerated classes.

  See also

  `postgresql.ENUM` - PostgreSQL-specific type, which has additional functionality.

  `mysql.ENUM` - MySQL-specific type

  `__init__`(*enums, **kw)

    Construct an enum.

    Keyword arguments which don’t apply to a specific backend are ignored by that backend.

    Parameters:

    - *enums –

      either exactly one PEP-435 compliant enumerated type or one or more string or unicode enumeration labels. If unicode labels are present, the convert_unicode flag is auto-enabled.

      New in version 1.1: a PEP-435 style enumerated class may be passed.

    - convert_unicode – Enable unicode-aware bind parameter and result-set processing for this Enum’s data. This is set automatically based on the presence of unicode label strings.
    - create_constraint –

      defaults to True. When creating a non-native enumerated type, also build a CHECK constraint on the database against the valid values.

      New in version 1.1: - added `Enum.create_constraint` which provides the option to disable the production of the CHECK constraint for a non-native enumerated type.

    - metadata – Associate this type directly with a `MetaData` object. For types that exist on the target database as an independent schema construct (PostgreSQL), this type will be created and dropped within `create_all()` and `drop_all()` operations. If the type is not associated with any `MetaData` object, it will associate itself with each `Table` in which it is used, and will be created when any of those individual tables are created, after a check is performed for its existence. The type is only dropped when `drop_all()` is called for that `Table` object’s metadata, however.
    - name – The name of this type. This is required for PostgreSQL and any future supported database which requires an explicitly named type, or an explicitly named constraint in order to generate the type and/or a table that uses it. If a PEP-435 enumerated class was used, its name (converted to lower case) is used by default.
    - native_enum – Use the database’s native ENUM type when available. Defaults to True. When False, uses VARCHAR + check constraint for all backends.
    - schema –

      Schema name of this type. For types that exist on the target database as an independent schema construct (PostgreSQL), this parameter specifies the named schema in which the type is present.

      Note

      The `schema` of the `Enum` type does not by default make use of the `schema` established on the owning `Table`. If this behavior is desired, set the `inherit_schema` flag to `True`.

    - quote – Set explicit quoting preferences for the type’s name.
    - inherit_schema – When `True`, the “schema” from the owning `Table` will be copied to the “schema” attribute of this `Enum`, replacing whatever value was passed for the `schema` attribute. This also takes effect when using the `Table.tometadata()` operation.
    - validate_strings –

      when True, string values that are being passed to the database in a SQL statement will be checked for validity against the list of enumerated values. Unrecognized values will result in a `LookupError` being raised.

      New in version 1.1.0b2.

    - values_callable –

      A callable which will be passed the PEP-435 compliant enumerated type, which should then return a list of string values to be persisted. This allows for alternate usages such as using the string value of an enum to be persisted to the database instead of its name.

      New in version 1.2.3.

  `create`(bind=None, checkfirst=False)
    inherited from the `create()` method of `SchemaType`

    Issue CREATE ddl for this type, if applicable.

  `drop`(bind=None, checkfirst=False)
    inherited from the `drop()` method of `SchemaType`

    Issue DROP ddl for this type, if applicable.

class `sqlalchemy.types.``Float`(precision=None, asdecimal=False, decimal_return_scale=None, **kwargs)

  Bases: `sqlalchemy.types.Numeric`

  Type representing floating point types, such as `FLOAT` or `REAL`.

  This type returns Python `float` objects by default, unless the `Float.asdecimal` flag is set to True, in which case they are coerced to `decimal.Decimal` objects.

  Note

  The `Float` type is designed to receive data from a database type that is explicitly known to be a floating point type (e.g. `FLOAT`, `REAL`, others) and not a decimal type (e.g. `DECIMAL`, `NUMERIC`, others). If the database column on the server is in fact a Numeric type, such as `DECIMAL` or `NUMERIC`, use the `Numeric` type or a subclass, otherwise numeric coercion between `float`/`Decimal` may or may not function as expected.

  `__init__`(precision=None, asdecimal=False, decimal_return_scale=None, **kwargs)

    Construct a Float.

    Parameters:

    - precision – the numeric precision for use in DDL `CREATE TABLE`.
    - asdecimal – the same flag as that of `Numeric`, but defaults to `False`. Note that setting this flag to `True` results in floating point conversion.
    - decimal_return_scale –

      Default scale to use when converting from floats to Python decimals. Floating point values will typically be much longer due to decimal inaccuracy, and most floating point database types don’t have a notion of “scale”, so by default the float type looks for the first ten decimal places when converting. Specfiying this value will override that length. Note that the MySQL float types, which do include “scale”, will use “scale” as the default for decimal_return_scale, if not otherwise specified.

      New in version 0.9.0.

    - **kwargs – deprecated. Additional arguments here are ignored by the default `Float` type. For database specific floats that support additional arguments, see that dialect’s documentation for details, such as `sqlalchemy.dialects.mysql.FLOAT`.

  `result_processor`(dialect, coltype)

    Return a conversion function for processing result row values.

    Returns a callable which will receive a result row column value as the sole positional argument and will return a value to return to the user.

    If processing is not necessary, the method should return `None`.

    Parameters:

    - dialect – Dialect instance in use.
    - coltype – DBAPI coltype argument received in cursor.description.

class `sqlalchemy.types.``Integer`

  Bases: `sqlalchemy.types._LookupExpressionAdapter`, `sqlalchemy.types.TypeEngine`

  A type for `int` integers.

  `get_dbapi_type`(dbapi)

    Return the corresponding type object from the underlying DB-API, if any.

    > This can be useful for calling `setinputsizes()`, for example.

  `literal_processor`(dialect)

    Return a conversion function for processing literal values that are to be rendered directly without using binds.

    This function is used when the compiler makes use of the “literal_binds” flag, typically used in DDL generation as well as in certain scenarios where backends don’t accept bound parameters.

    New in version 0.9.0.

  `python_type`

    Return the Python type object expected to be returned by instances of this type, if known.

    Basically, for those types which enforce a return type, or are known across the board to do such for all common DBAPIs (like `int` for example), will return that type.

    If a return type is not defined, raises `NotImplementedError`.

    Note that any type also accommodates NULL in SQL which means you can also get back `None` from any type in practice.

class `sqlalchemy.types.``Interval`(native=True, second_precision=None, day_precision=None)

  Bases: `sqlalchemy.types.Emulated`, `sqlalchemy.types._AbstractInterval`, `sqlalchemy.types.TypeDecorator`

  A type for `datetime.timedelta()` objects.

  The Interval type deals with `datetime.timedelta` objects. In PostgreSQL, the native `INTERVAL` type is used; for others, the value is stored as a date which is relative to the “epoch” (Jan. 1, 1970).

  Note that the `Interval` type does not currently provide date arithmetic operations on platforms which do not support interval types natively. Such operations usually require transformation of both sides of the expression (such as, conversion of both sides into integer epoch values first) which currently is a manual procedure (such as via `func`).

  `__init__`(native=True, second_precision=None, day_precision=None)

    Construct an Interval object.

    Parameters:

    - native – when True, use the actual INTERVAL type provided by the database, if supported (currently PostgreSQL, Oracle). Otherwise, represent the interval data as an epoch value regardless.
    - second_precision – For native interval types which support a “fractional seconds precision” parameter, i.e. Oracle and PostgreSQL
    - day_precision – for native interval types which support a “day precision” parameter, i.e. Oracle.

  `adapt_to_emulated`(impltype, **kw)

    Given an impl class, adapt this type to the impl assuming “emulated”.

    The impl should also be an “emulated” version of this type, most likely the same class as this type itself.

    e.g.: sqltypes.Enum adapts to the Enum class.

  `bind_processor`(dialect)

    Return a conversion function for processing bind values.

    Returns a callable which will receive a bind parameter value as the sole positional argument and will return a value to send to the DB-API.

    If processing is not necessary, the method should return `None`.

    Parameters: | dialect – Dialect instance in use.

  `impl`

    alias of `DateTime`

  `python_type`

    Return the Python type object expected to be returned by instances of this type, if known.

    Basically, for those types which enforce a return type, or are known across the board to do such for all common DBAPIs (like `int` for example), will return that type.

    If a return type is not defined, raises `NotImplementedError`.

    Note that any type also accommodates NULL in SQL which means you can also get back `None` from any type in practice.

  `result_processor`(dialect, coltype)

    Return a conversion function for processing result row values.

    Returns a callable which will receive a result row column value as the sole positional argument and will return a value to return to the user.

    If processing is not necessary, the method should return `None`.

    Parameters:

    - dialect – Dialect instance in use.
    - coltype – DBAPI coltype argument received in cursor.description.

class `sqlalchemy.types.``LargeBinary`(length=None)

  Bases: `sqlalchemy.types._Binary`

  A type for large binary byte data.

  The `LargeBinary` type corresponds to a large and/or unlengthed binary type for the target platform, such as BLOB on MySQL and BYTEA for PostgreSQL. It also handles the necessary conversions for the DBAPI.

  `__init__`(length=None)

    Construct a LargeBinary type.

    Parameters: | length – optional, a length for the column for use in DDL statements, for those binary types that accept a length, such as the MySQL BLOB type.

class `sqlalchemy.types.``MatchType`(create_constraint=True, name=None, _create_events=True)

  Bases: `sqlalchemy.types.Boolean`

  Refers to the return type of the MATCH operator.

  As the `ColumnOperators.match()` is probably the most open-ended operator in generic SQLAlchemy Core, we can’t assume the return type at SQL evaluation time, as MySQL returns a floating point, not a boolean, and other backends might do something different. So this type acts as a placeholder, currently subclassing `Boolean`. The type allows dialects to inject result-processing functionality if needed, and on MySQL will return floating-point values.

  New in version 1.0.0.

class `sqlalchemy.types.``Numeric`(precision=None, scale=None, decimal_return_scale=None, asdecimal=True)

  Bases: `sqlalchemy.types._LookupExpressionAdapter`, `sqlalchemy.types.TypeEngine`

  A type for fixed precision numbers, such as `NUMERIC` or `DECIMAL`.

  This type returns Python `decimal.Decimal` objects by default, unless the `Numeric.asdecimal` flag is set to False, in which case they are coerced to Python `float` objects.

  Note

  The `Numeric` type is designed to receive data from a database type that is explicitly known to be a decimal type (e.g. `DECIMAL`, `NUMERIC`, others) and not a floating point type (e.g. `FLOAT`, `REAL`, others). If the database column on the server is in fact a floating-point type type, such as `FLOAT` or `REAL`, use the `Float` type or a subclass, otherwise numeric coercion between `float`/`Decimal` may or may not function as expected.

  Note

  The Python `decimal.Decimal` class is generally slow performing; cPython 3.3 has now switched to use the cdecimal library natively. For older Python versions, the `cdecimal` library can be patched into any application where it will replace the `decimal` library fully, however this needs to be applied globally and before any other modules have been imported, as follows:

      import sys
      import cdecimal
      sys.modules["decimal"] = cdecimal

  Note that the `cdecimal` and `decimal` libraries are not compatible with each other, so patching `cdecimal` at the global level is the only way it can be used effectively with various DBAPIs that hardcode to import the `decimal` library.

  `__init__`(precision=None, scale=None, decimal_return_scale=None, asdecimal=True)

    Construct a Numeric.

    Parameters:

    - precision – the numeric precision for use in DDL `CREATE TABLE`.
    - scale – the numeric scale for use in DDL `CREATE TABLE`.
    - asdecimal – default True. Return whether or not values should be sent as Python Decimal objects, or as floats. Different DBAPIs send one or the other based on datatypes - the Numeric type will ensure that return values are one or the other across DBAPIs consistently.
    - decimal_return_scale –

      Default scale to use when converting from floats to Python decimals. Floating point values will typically be much longer due to decimal inaccuracy, and most floating point database types don’t have a notion of “scale”, so by default the float type looks for the first ten decimal places when converting. Specfiying this value will override that length. Types which do include an explicit “.scale” value, such as the base `Numeric` as well as the MySQL float types, will use the value of “.scale” as the default for decimal_return_scale, if not otherwise specified.

      New in version 0.9.0.

    When using the `Numeric` type, care should be taken to ensure that the asdecimal setting is apppropriate for the DBAPI in use - when Numeric applies a conversion from Decimal->float or float-> Decimal, this conversion incurs an additional performance overhead for all result columns received.

    DBAPIs that return Decimal natively (e.g. psycopg2) will have better accuracy and higher performance with a setting of `True`, as the native translation to Decimal reduces the amount of floating- point issues at play, and the Numeric type itself doesn’t need to apply any further conversions. However, another DBAPI which returns floats natively will incur an additional conversion overhead, and is still subject to floating point data loss - in which case `asdecimal=False` will at least remove the extra conversion overhead.

  `bind_processor`(dialect)

    Return a conversion function for processing bind values.

    Returns a callable which will receive a bind parameter value as the sole positional argument and will return a value to send to the DB-API.

    If processing is not necessary, the method should return `None`.

    Parameters: | dialect – Dialect instance in use.

  `get_dbapi_type`(dbapi)

    Return the corresponding type object from the underlying DB-API, if any.

    > This can be useful for calling `setinputsizes()`, for example.

  `literal_processor`(dialect)

    Return a conversion function for processing literal values that are to be rendered directly without using binds.

    This function is used when the compiler makes use of the “literal_binds” flag, typically used in DDL generation as well as in certain scenarios where backends don’t accept bound parameters.

    New in version 0.9.0.

  `python_type`

    Return the Python type object expected to be returned by instances of this type, if known.

    Basically, for those types which enforce a return type, or are known across the board to do such for all common DBAPIs (like `int` for example), will return that type.

    If a return type is not defined, raises `NotImplementedError`.

    Note that any type also accommodates NULL in SQL which means you can also get back `None` from any type in practice.

  `result_processor`(dialect, coltype)

    Return a conversion function for processing result row values.

    Returns a callable which will receive a result row column value as the sole positional argument and will return a value to return to the user.

    If processing is not necessary, the method should return `None`.

    Parameters:

    - dialect – Dialect instance in use.
    - coltype – DBAPI coltype argument received in cursor.description.

class `sqlalchemy.types.``PickleType`(protocol=4, pickler=None, comparator=None)

  Bases: `sqlalchemy.types.TypeDecorator`

  Holds Python objects, which are serialized using pickle.

  PickleType builds upon the Binary type to apply Python’s `pickle.dumps()` to incoming objects, and `pickle.loads()` on the way out, allowing any pickleable Python object to be stored as a serialized binary field.

  To allow ORM change events to propagate for elements associated with `PickleType`, see Mutation Tracking.

  `__init__`(protocol=4, pickler=None, comparator=None)

    Construct a PickleType.

    Parameters:

    - protocol – defaults to `pickle.HIGHEST_PROTOCOL`.
    - pickler – defaults to cPickle.pickle or pickle.pickle if cPickle is not available. May be any object with pickle-compatible `dumps` and ``loads` methods.
    - comparator – a 2-arg callable predicate used to compare values of this type. If left as `None`, the Python “equals” operator is used to compare values.

  `bind_processor`(dialect)

    Provide a bound value processing function for the given `Dialect`.

    This is the method that fulfills the `TypeEngine` contract for bound value conversion. `TypeDecorator` will wrap a user-defined implementation of `process_bind_param()` here.

    User-defined code can override this method directly, though its likely best to use `process_bind_param()` so that the processing provided by `self.impl` is maintained.

    Parameters: | dialect – Dialect instance in use.

    This method is the reverse counterpart to the `result_processor()` method of this class.

  `compare_values`(x, y)

    Given two values, compare them for equality.

    By default this calls upon `TypeEngine.compare_values()` of the underlying “impl”, which in turn usually uses the Python equals operator `==`.

    This function is used by the ORM to compare an original-loaded value with an intercepted “changed” value, to determine if a net change has occurred.

  `impl`

    alias of `LargeBinary`

  `result_processor`(dialect, coltype)

    Provide a result value processing function for the given `Dialect`.

    This is the method that fulfills the `TypeEngine` contract for result value conversion. `TypeDecorator` will wrap a user-defined implementation of `process_result_value()` here.

    User-defined code can override this method directly, though its likely best to use `process_result_value()` so that the processing provided by `self.impl` is maintained.

    Parameters:

    - dialect – Dialect instance in use.
    - coltype – A SQLAlchemy data type

    This method is the reverse counterpart to the `bind_processor()` method of this class.

class `sqlalchemy.types.``SchemaType`(name=None, schema=None, metadata=None, inherit_schema=False, quote=None, _create_events=True)

  Bases: `sqlalchemy.sql.expression.SchemaEventTarget`

  Mark a type as possibly requiring schema-level DDL for usage.

  Supports types that must be explicitly created/dropped (i.e. PG ENUM type) as well as types that are complimented by table or schema level constraints, triggers, and other rules.

  `SchemaType` classes can also be targets for the `DDLEvents.before_parent_attach()` and `DDLEvents.after_parent_attach()` events, where the events fire off surrounding the association of the type object with a parent `Column`.

  See also

  `Enum`

  `Boolean`

  `adapt`(impltype, **kw)
  `bind`
  `copy`(**kw)
  `create`(bind=None, checkfirst=False)

    Issue CREATE ddl for this type, if applicable.

  `drop`(bind=None, checkfirst=False)

    Issue DROP ddl for this type, if applicable.

class `sqlalchemy.types.``SmallInteger`

  Bases: `sqlalchemy.types.Integer`

  A type for smaller `int` integers.

  Typically generates a `SMALLINT` in DDL, and otherwise acts like a normal `Integer` on the Python side.

class `sqlalchemy.types.``String`(length=None, collation=None, convert_unicode=False, unicode_error=None, _warn_on_bytestring=False)

  Bases: `sqlalchemy.types.Concatenable`, `sqlalchemy.types.TypeEngine`

  The base for all string and character types.

  In SQL, corresponds to VARCHAR. Can also take Python unicode objects and encode to the database’s encoding in bind params (and the reverse for result sets.)

  The length field is usually required when the String type is used within a CREATE TABLE statement, as VARCHAR requires a length on most databases.

  `__init__`(length=None, collation=None, convert_unicode=False, unicode_error=None, _warn_on_bytestring=False)

    Create a string-holding type.

    Parameters:

    - length – optional, a length for the column for use in DDL and CAST expressions. May be safely omitted if no `CREATE TABLE` will be issued. Certain databases may require a `length` for use in DDL, and will raise an exception when the `CREATE TABLE` DDL is issued if a `VARCHAR` with no length is included. Whether the value is interpreted as bytes or characters is database specific.
    - collation –

      Optional, a column-level collation for use in DDL and CAST expressions. Renders using the COLLATE keyword supported by SQLite, MySQL, and PostgreSQL. E.g.:

          >>> from sqlalchemy import cast, select, String
          >>> print select([cast('some string', String(collation='utf8'))])
          SELECT CAST(:param_1 AS VARCHAR COLLATE utf8) AS anon_1

      New in version 0.8: Added support for COLLATE to all string types.

    - convert_unicode –

      When set to `True`, the `String` type will assume that input is to be passed as Python `unicode` objects, and results returned as Python `unicode` objects. If the DBAPI in use does not support Python unicode (which is fewer and fewer these days), SQLAlchemy will encode/decode the value, using the value of the `encoding` parameter passed to `create_engine()` as the encoding.

      When using a DBAPI that natively supports Python unicode objects, this flag generally does not need to be set. For columns that are explicitly intended to store non-ASCII data, the `Unicode` or `UnicodeText` types should be used regardless, which feature the same behavior of `convert_unicode` but also indicate an underlying column type that directly supports unicode, such as `NVARCHAR`.

      For the extremely rare case that Python `unicode` is to be encoded/decoded by SQLAlchemy on a backend that does natively support Python `unicode`, the value `force` can be passed here which will cause SQLAlchemy’s encode/decode services to be used unconditionally.

    - unicode_error – Optional, a method to use to handle Unicode conversion errors. Behaves like the `errors` keyword argument to the standard library’s `string.decode()` functions. This flag requires that `convert_unicode` is set to `force` - otherwise, SQLAlchemy is not guaranteed to handle the task of unicode conversion. Note that this flag adds significant performance overhead to row-fetching operations for backends that already return unicode objects natively (which most DBAPIs do). This flag should only be used as a last resort for reading strings from a column with varied or corrupted encodings.

  `bind_processor`(dialect)

    Return a conversion function for processing bind values.

    Returns a callable which will receive a bind parameter value as the sole positional argument and will return a value to send to the DB-API.

    If processing is not necessary, the method should return `None`.

    Parameters: | dialect – Dialect instance in use.

  `get_dbapi_type`(dbapi)

    Return the corresponding type object from the underlying DB-API, if any.

    > This can be useful for calling `setinputsizes()`, for example.

  `literal_processor`(dialect)

    Return a conversion function for processing literal values that are to be rendered directly without using binds.

    This function is used when the compiler makes use of the “literal_binds” flag, typically used in DDL generation as well as in certain scenarios where backends don’t accept bound parameters.

    New in version 0.9.0.

  `python_type`

    Return the Python type object expected to be returned by instances of this type, if known.

    Basically, for those types which enforce a return type, or are known across the board to do such for all common DBAPIs (like `int` for example), will return that type.

    If a return type is not defined, raises `NotImplementedError`.

    Note that any type also accommodates NULL in SQL which means you can also get back `None` from any type in practice.

  `result_processor`(dialect, coltype)

    Return a conversion function for processing result row values.

    Returns a callable which will receive a result row column value as the sole positional argument and will return a value to return to the user.

    If processing is not necessary, the method should return `None`.

    Parameters:

    - dialect – Dialect instance in use.
    - coltype – DBAPI coltype argument received in cursor.description.

class `sqlalchemy.types.``Text`(length=None, collation=None, convert_unicode=False, unicode_error=None, _warn_on_bytestring=False)

  Bases: `sqlalchemy.types.String`

  A variably sized string type.

  In SQL, usually corresponds to CLOB or TEXT. Can also take Python unicode objects and encode to the database’s encoding in bind params (and the reverse for result sets.) In general, TEXT objects do not have a length; while some databases will accept a length argument here, it will be rejected by others.

class `sqlalchemy.types.``Time`(timezone=False)

  Bases: `sqlalchemy.types._LookupExpressionAdapter`, `sqlalchemy.types.TypeEngine`

  A type for `datetime.time()` objects.

  `get_dbapi_type`(dbapi)

    Return the corresponding type object from the underlying DB-API, if any.

    > This can be useful for calling `setinputsizes()`, for example.

  `python_type`

    Return the Python type object expected to be returned by instances of this type, if known.

    Basically, for those types which enforce a return type, or are known across the board to do such for all common DBAPIs (like `int` for example), will return that type.

    If a return type is not defined, raises `NotImplementedError`.

    Note that any type also accommodates NULL in SQL which means you can also get back `None` from any type in practice.

class `sqlalchemy.types.``Unicode`(length=None, **kwargs)

  Bases: `sqlalchemy.types.String`

  A variable length Unicode string type.

  The `Unicode` type is a `String` subclass that assumes input and output as Python `unicode` data, and in that regard is equivalent to the usage of the `convert_unicode` flag with the `String` type. However, unlike plain `String`, it also implies an underlying column type that is explicitly supporting of non-ASCII data, such as `NVARCHAR` on Oracle and SQL Server. This can impact the output of `CREATE TABLE` statements and `CAST` functions at the dialect level, and can also affect the handling of bound parameters in some specific DBAPI scenarios.

  The encoding used by the `Unicode` type is usually determined by the DBAPI itself; most modern DBAPIs feature support for Python `unicode` objects as bound values and result set values, and the encoding should be configured as detailed in the notes for the target DBAPI in the Dialects section.

  For those DBAPIs which do not support, or are not configured to accommodate Python `unicode` objects directly, SQLAlchemy does the encoding and decoding outside of the DBAPI. The encoding in this scenario is determined by the `encoding` flag passed to `create_engine()`.

  When using the `Unicode` type, it is only appropriate to pass Python `unicode` objects, and not plain `str`. If a plain `str` is passed under Python 2, a warning is emitted. If you notice your application emitting these warnings but you’re not sure of the source of them, the Python `warnings` filter, documented at http://docs.python.org/library/warnings.html, can be used to turn these warnings into exceptions which will illustrate a stack trace:

      import warnings
      warnings.simplefilter('error')

  For an application that wishes to pass plain bytestrings and Python `unicode` objects to the `Unicode` type equally, the bytestrings must first be decoded into unicode. The recipe at Coercing Encoded Strings to Unicode illustrates how this is done.

  See also:

  > `UnicodeText` - unlengthed textual counterpart to `Unicode`.

  `__init__`(length=None, **kwargs)

    Create a `Unicode` object.

    Parameters are the same as that of `String`, with the exception that `convert_unicode` defaults to `True`.

class `sqlalchemy.types.``UnicodeText`(length=None, **kwargs)

  Bases: `sqlalchemy.types.Text`

  An unbounded-length Unicode string type.

  See `Unicode` for details on the unicode behavior of this object.

  Like `Unicode`, usage the `UnicodeText` type implies a unicode-capable type being used on the backend, such as `NCLOB`, `NTEXT`.

  `__init__`(length=None, **kwargs)

    Create a Unicode-converting Text type.

    Parameters are the same as that of `Text`, with the exception that `convert_unicode` defaults to `True`.

## SQL Standard and Multiple Vendor Types

This category of types refers to types that are either part of the SQL standard, or are potentially found within a subset of database backends. Unlike the “generic” types, the SQL standard/multi-vendor types have no guarantee of working on all backends, and will only work on those backends that explicitly support them by name. That is, the type will always emit its exact name in DDL with `CREATE TABLE` is issued.

class `sqlalchemy.types.``ARRAY`(item_type, as_tuple=False, dimensions=None, zero_indexes=False)

  Bases: `sqlalchemy.sql.expression.SchemaEventTarget`, `sqlalchemy.types.Indexable`, `sqlalchemy.types.Concatenable`, `sqlalchemy.types.TypeEngine`

  Represent a SQL Array type.

  Note

  This type serves as the basis for all ARRAY operations. However, currently only the PostgreSQL backend has support for SQL arrays in SQLAlchemy. It is recommended to use the `postgresql.ARRAY` type directly when using ARRAY types with PostgreSQL, as it provides additional operators specific to that backend.

  `types.ARRAY` is part of the Core in support of various SQL standard functions such as `array_agg` which explicitly involve arrays; however, with the exception of the PostgreSQL backend and possibly some third-party dialects, no other SQLAlchemy built-in dialect has support for this type.

  An `types.ARRAY` type is constructed given the “type” of element:

      mytable = Table("mytable", metadata,
              Column("data", ARRAY(Integer))
          )

  The above type represents an N-dimensional array, meaning a supporting backend such as PostgreSQL will interpret values with any number of dimensions automatically. To produce an INSERT construct that passes in a 1-dimensional array of integers:

      connection.execute(
              mytable.insert(),
              data=[1,2,3]
      )

  The `types.ARRAY` type can be constructed given a fixed number of dimensions:

      mytable = Table("mytable", metadata,
              Column("data", ARRAY(Integer, dimensions=2))
          )

  Sending a number of dimensions is optional, but recommended if the datatype is to represent arrays of more than one dimension. This number is used:

  - When emitting the type declaration itself to the database, e.g. `INTEGER[][]`

  - When translating Python values to database values, and vice versa, e.g. an ARRAY of `Unicode` objects uses this number to efficiently access the string values inside of array structures without resorting to per-row type inspection

  - When used with the Python `getitem` accessor, the number of dimensions serves to define the kind of type that the `[]` operator should return, e.g. for an ARRAY of INTEGER with two dimensions:

        >>> expr = table.c.column[5]  # returns ARRAY(Integer, dimensions=1)
        >>> expr = expr[6]  # returns Integer

  For 1-dimensional arrays, an `types.ARRAY` instance with no dimension parameter will generally assume single-dimensional behaviors.

  SQL expressions of type `types.ARRAY` have support for “index” and “slice” behavior. The Python `[]` operator works normally here, given integer indexes or slices. Arrays default to 1-based indexing. The operator produces binary expression constructs which will produce the appropriate SQL, both for SELECT statements:

      select([mytable.c.data[5], mytable.c.data[2:7]])

  as well as UPDATE statements when the `Update.values()` method is used:

      mytable.update().values({
          mytable.c.data[5]: 7,
          mytable.c.data[2:7]: [1, 2, 3]
      })

  The `types.ARRAY` type also provides for the operators `types.ARRAY.Comparator.any()` and `types.ARRAY.Comparator.all()`. The PostgreSQL-specific version of `types.ARRAY` also provides additional operators.

  New in version 1.1.0.

  See also

  `postgresql.ARRAY`

  class `Comparator`(expr)

    Bases: `sqlalchemy.types.Comparator`, `sqlalchemy.types.Comparator`

    Define comparison operations for `types.ARRAY`.

    More operators are available on the dialect-specific form of this type. See `postgresql.ARRAY.Comparator`.

    `all`(elements, other, operator=None)

      Return `other operator ALL (array)` clause.

      Argument places are switched, because ALL requires array expression to be on the right hand-side.

      E.g.:

          from sqlalchemy.sql import operators

          conn.execute(
              select([table.c.data]).where(
                      table.c.data.all(7, operator=operators.lt)
                  )
          )

      Parameters:

      - other – expression to be compared
      - operator – an operator object from the `sqlalchemy.sql.operators` package, defaults to `operators.eq()`.

      See also

      `sql.expression.all_()`

      `types.ARRAY.Comparator.any()`

    `any`(elements, other, operator=None)

      Return `other operator ANY (array)` clause.

      Argument places are switched, because ANY requires array expression to be on the right hand-side.

      E.g.:

          from sqlalchemy.sql import operators

          conn.execute(
              select([table.c.data]).where(
                      table.c.data.any(7, operator=operators.lt)
                  )
          )

      Parameters:

      - other – expression to be compared
      - operator – an operator object from the `sqlalchemy.sql.operators` package, defaults to `operators.eq()`.

      See also

      `sql.expression.any_()`

      `types.ARRAY.Comparator.all()`

    `contains`(*arg, **kw)

      Implement the ‘contains’ operator.

      Produces a LIKE expression that tests against a match for the middle of a string value:

          column LIKE '%' || <other> || '%'

      E.g.:

          stmt = select([sometable]).\
              where(sometable.c.column.contains("foobar"))

      Since the operator uses `LIKE`, wildcard characters `"%"` and `"_"` that are present inside the <other> expression will behave like wildcards as well. For literal string values, the `ColumnOperators.contains.autoescape` flag may be set to `True` to apply escaping to occurences of these characters within the string value so that they match as themselves and not as wildcard characters. Alternatively, the `ColumnOperators.contains.escape` parameter will establish a given character as an escape character which can be of use when the target expression is not a literal string.

      Parameters:

      - other – expression to be compared. This is usually a plain string value, but can also be an arbitrary SQL expression. LIKE wildcard characters `%` and `_` are not escaped by default unless the `ColumnOperators.contains.autoescape` flag is set to True.
      - autoescape –

        boolean; when True, establishes an escape character within the LIKE expression, then applies it to all occurrences of `"%"`, `"_"` and the escape character itself within the comparison value, which is assumed to be a literal string and not a SQL expression.

        An expression such as:

            somecolumn.contains("foo%bar", autoescape=True)

        Will render as:

            somecolumn LIKE '%' || :param || '%' ESCAPE '/'

        With the value of :param as `"foo/%bar"`.

        New in version 1.2.

        Changed in version 1.2.0: The `ColumnOperators.contains.autoescape` parameter is now a simple boolean rather than a character; the escape character itself is also escaped, and defaults to a forwards slash, which itself can be customized using the `ColumnOperators.contains.escape` parameter.

      - escape –

        a character which when given will render with the `ESCAPE` keyword to establish that character as the escape character. This character can then be placed preceding occurrences of `%` and `_` to allow them to act as themselves and not wildcard characters.

        An expression such as:

            somecolumn.contains("foo/%bar", escape="^")

        Will render as:

            somecolumn LIKE '%' || :param || '%' ESCAPE '^'

        The parameter may also be combined with `ColumnOperators.contains.autoescape`:

            somecolumn.contains("foo%bar^bat", escape="^", autoescape=True)

        Where above, the given literal parameter will be converted to `"foo^%bar^^bat"` before being passed to the database.

      See also

      `ColumnOperators.startswith()`

      `ColumnOperators.endswith()`

      `ColumnOperators.like()`

  `__init__`(item_type, as_tuple=False, dimensions=None, zero_indexes=False)

    Construct an `types.ARRAY`.

    E.g.:

        Column('myarray', ARRAY(Integer))

    Arguments are:

    Parameters:

    - item_type – The data type of items of this array. Note that dimensionality is irrelevant here, so multi-dimensional arrays like `INTEGER[][]`, are constructed as `ARRAY(Integer)`, not as `ARRAY(ARRAY(Integer))` or such.
    - as_tuple=False – Specify whether return results should be converted to tuples from lists. This parameter is not generally needed as a Python list corresponds well to a SQL array.
    - dimensions – if non-None, the ARRAY will assume a fixed number of dimensions. This impacts how the array is declared on the database, how it goes about interpreting Python and result values, as well as how expression behavior in conjunction with the “getitem” operator works. See the description at `types.ARRAY` for additional detail.
    - zero_indexes=False – when True, index values will be converted between Python zero-based and SQL one-based indexes, e.g. a value of one will be added to all index values before passing to the database.

  `comparator_factory`

    alias of `ARRAY.Comparator`

  `compare_values`(x, y)

    Compare two values for equality.

  `hashable`

    bool(x) -> bool

    Returns True when the argument x is true, False otherwise. The builtins True and False are the only two instances of the class bool. The class bool is a subclass of the class int, and cannot be subclassed.

  `python_type`

    Return the Python type object expected to be returned by instances of this type, if known.

    Basically, for those types which enforce a return type, or are known across the board to do such for all common DBAPIs (like `int` for example), will return that type.

    If a return type is not defined, raises `NotImplementedError`.

    Note that any type also accommodates NULL in SQL which means you can also get back `None` from any type in practice.

  `zero_indexes` = False

    if True, Python zero-based indexes should be interpreted as one-based on the SQL expression side.

class `sqlalchemy.types.``BIGINT`

  Bases: `sqlalchemy.types.BigInteger`

  The SQL BIGINT type.

class `sqlalchemy.types.``BINARY`(length=None)

  Bases: `sqlalchemy.types._Binary`

  The SQL BINARY type.

class `sqlalchemy.types.``BLOB`(length=None)

  Bases: `sqlalchemy.types.LargeBinary`

  The SQL BLOB type.

class `sqlalchemy.types.``BOOLEAN`(create_constraint=True, name=None, _create_events=True)

  Bases: `sqlalchemy.types.Boolean`

  The SQL BOOLEAN type.

class `sqlalchemy.types.``CHAR`(length=None, collation=None, convert_unicode=False, unicode_error=None, _warn_on_bytestring=False)

  Bases: `sqlalchemy.types.String`

  The SQL CHAR type.

class `sqlalchemy.types.``CLOB`(length=None, collation=None, convert_unicode=False, unicode_error=None, _warn_on_bytestring=False)

  Bases: `sqlalchemy.types.Text`

  The CLOB type.

  This type is found in Oracle and Informix.

class `sqlalchemy.types.``DATE`

  Bases: `sqlalchemy.types.Date`

  The SQL DATE type.

class `sqlalchemy.types.``DATETIME`(timezone=False)

  Bases: `sqlalchemy.types.DateTime`

  The SQL DATETIME type.

class `sqlalchemy.types.``DECIMAL`(precision=None, scale=None, decimal_return_scale=None, asdecimal=True)

  Bases: `sqlalchemy.types.Numeric`

  The SQL DECIMAL type.

class `sqlalchemy.types.``FLOAT`(precision=None, asdecimal=False, decimal_return_scale=None, **kwargs)

  Bases: `sqlalchemy.types.Float`

  The SQL FLOAT type.

`sqlalchemy.types.``INT`

  alias of `sqlalchemy.sql.sqltypes.INTEGER`

class `sqlalchemy.types.``JSON`(none_as_null=False)

  Bases: `sqlalchemy.types.Indexable`, `sqlalchemy.types.TypeEngine`

  Represent a SQL JSON type.

  Note

  `types.JSON` is provided as a facade for vendor-specific JSON types. Since it supports JSON SQL operations, it only works on backends that have an actual JSON type, currently PostgreSQL as well as certain versions of MySQL.

  `types.JSON` is part of the Core in support of the growing popularity of native JSON datatypes.

  The `types.JSON` type stores arbitrary JSON format data, e.g.:

      data_table = Table('data_table', metadata,
          Column('id', Integer, primary_key=True),
          Column('data', JSON)
      )

      with engine.connect() as conn:
          conn.execute(
              data_table.insert(),
              data = {"key1": "value1", "key2": "value2"}
          )

  The base `types.JSON` provides these two operations:

  - Keyed index operations:

        data_table.c.data['some key']

  - Integer index operations:

        data_table.c.data[3]

  - Path index operations:

        data_table.c.data[('key_1', 'key_2', 5, ..., 'key_n')]

  Additional operations are available from the dialect-specific versions of `types.JSON`, such as `postgresql.JSON` and `postgresql.JSONB`, each of which offer more operators than just the basic type.

  Index operations return an expression object whose type defaults to `JSON` by default, so that further JSON-oriented instructions may be called upon the result type. Note that there are backend-specific idiosyncracies here, including that the Postgresql database does not generally compare a “json” to a “json” structure without type casts. These idiosyncracies can be accommodated in a backend-neutral way by by making explicit use of the `cast()` and `type_coerce()` constructs. Comparison of specific index elements of a `JSON` object to other objects work best if the left hand side is CAST to a string and the right hand side is rendered as a json string; a future SQLAlchemy feature such as a generic “astext” modifier may simplify this at some point:

  - Compare an element of a JSON structure to a string:

        from sqlalchemy import cast, type_coerce
        from sqlalchemy import String, JSON

        cast(
            data_table.c.data['some_key'], String
        ) == '"some_value"'

        cast(
            data_table.c.data['some_key'], String
        ) == type_coerce("some_value", JSON)

  - Compare an element of a JSON structure to an integer:

        from sqlalchemy import cast, type_coerce
        from sqlalchemy import String, JSON

        cast(data_table.c.data['some_key'], String) == '55'

        cast(
            data_table.c.data['some_key'], String
        ) == type_coerce(55, JSON)

  - Compare an element of a JSON structure to some other JSON structure - note that Python dictionaries are typically not ordered so care should be taken here to assert that the JSON structures are identical:

        from sqlalchemy import cast, type_coerce
        from sqlalchemy import String, JSON
        import json

        cast(
            data_table.c.data['some_key'], String
        ) == json.dumps({"foo": "bar"})

        cast(
            data_table.c.data['some_key'], String
        ) == type_coerce({"foo": "bar"}, JSON)

  The `JSON` type, when used with the SQLAlchemy ORM, does not detect in-place mutations to the structure. In order to detect these, the `sqlalchemy.ext.mutable` extension must be used. This extension will allow “in-place” changes to the datastructure to produce events which will be detected by the unit of work. See the example at `HSTORE` for a simple example involving a dictionary.

  When working with NULL values, the `JSON` type recommends the use of two specific constants in order to differentiate between a column that evaluates to SQL NULL, e.g. no value, vs. the JSON-encoded string of `"null"`. To insert or select against a value that is SQL NULL, use the constant `null()`:

      from sqlalchemy import null
      conn.execute(table.insert(), json_value=null())

  To insert or select against a value that is JSON `"null"`, use the constant `JSON.NULL`:

      conn.execute(table.insert(), json_value=JSON.NULL)

  The `JSON` type supports a flag `JSON.none_as_null` which when set to True will result in the Python constant `None` evaluating to the value of SQL NULL, and when set to False results in the Python constant `None` evaluating to the value of JSON `"null"`. The Python value `None` may be used in conjunction with either `JSON.NULL` and `null()` in order to indicate NULL values, but care must be taken as to the value of the `JSON.none_as_null` in these cases.

  See also

  `postgresql.JSON`

  `postgresql.JSONB`

  `mysql.JSON`

  New in version 1.1.

  class `Comparator`(expr)

    Bases: `sqlalchemy.types.Comparator`, `sqlalchemy.types.Comparator`

    Define comparison operations for `types.JSON`.

  class `JSONElementType`

    Bases: `sqlalchemy.types.TypeEngine`

    common function for index / path elements in a JSON expression.

    `bind_processor`(dialect)

      Return a conversion function for processing bind values.

      Returns a callable which will receive a bind parameter value as the sole positional argument and will return a value to send to the DB-API.

      If processing is not necessary, the method should return `None`.

      Parameters: | dialect – Dialect instance in use.

    `literal_processor`(dialect)

      Return a conversion function for processing literal values that are to be rendered directly without using binds.

      This function is used when the compiler makes use of the “literal_binds” flag, typically used in DDL generation as well as in certain scenarios where backends don’t accept bound parameters.

      New in version 0.9.0.

  class `JSONIndexType`

    Bases: `sqlalchemy.types.JSONElementType`

    Placeholder for the datatype of a JSON index value.

    This allows execution-time processing of JSON index values for special syntaxes.

  class `JSONPathType`

    Bases: `sqlalchemy.types.JSONElementType`

    Placeholder type for JSON path operations.

    This allows execution-time processing of a path-based index value into a specific SQL syntax.

  `NULL` = symbol('JSON_NULL')

    Describe the json value of NULL.

    This value is used to force the JSON value of `"null"` to be used as the value. A value of Python `None` will be recognized either as SQL NULL or JSON `"null"`, based on the setting of the `JSON.none_as_null` flag; the `JSON.NULL` constant can be used to always resolve to JSON `"null"` regardless of this setting. This is in contrast to the `sql.null()` construct, which always resolves to SQL NULL. E.g.:

        from sqlalchemy import null
        from sqlalchemy.dialects.postgresql import JSON

        obj1 = MyObject(json_value=null())  # will *always* insert SQL NULL
        obj2 = MyObject(json_value=JSON.NULL)  # will *always* insert JSON string "null"

        session.add_all([obj1, obj2])
        session.commit()

    In order to set JSON NULL as a default value for a column, the most transparent method is to use `text()`:

        Table(
            'my_table', metadata,
            Column('json_data', JSON, default=text("'null'"))
        )

    While it is possible to use `JSON.NULL` in this context, the `JSON.NULL` value will be returned as the value of the column, which in the context of the ORM or other repurposing of the default value, may not be desirable. Using a SQL expression means the value will be re-fetched from the database within the context of retrieving generated defaults.

  `__init__`(none_as_null=False)

    Construct a `types.JSON` type.

    Parameters:

    none_as_null=False –

    if True, persist the value `None` as a SQL NULL value, not the JSON encoding of `null`. Note that when this flag is False, the `null()` construct can still be used to persist a NULL value:

        from sqlalchemy import null
        conn.execute(table.insert(), data=null())

    Note

    `JSON.none_as_null` does not apply to the values passed to `Column.default` and `Column.server_default`; a value of `None` passed for these parameters means “no default present”.

    See also

    `types.JSON.NULL`

  `bind_processor`(dialect)

    Return a conversion function for processing bind values.

    Returns a callable which will receive a bind parameter value as the sole positional argument and will return a value to send to the DB-API.

    If processing is not necessary, the method should return `None`.

    Parameters: | dialect – Dialect instance in use.

  `comparator_factory`

    alias of `JSON.Comparator`

  `python_type`

    Return the Python type object expected to be returned by instances of this type, if known.

    Basically, for those types which enforce a return type, or are known across the board to do such for all common DBAPIs (like `int` for example), will return that type.

    If a return type is not defined, raises `NotImplementedError`.

    Note that any type also accommodates NULL in SQL which means you can also get back `None` from any type in practice.

  `result_processor`(dialect, coltype)

    Return a conversion function for processing result row values.

    Returns a callable which will receive a result row column value as the sole positional argument and will return a value to return to the user.

    If processing is not necessary, the method should return `None`.

    Parameters:

    - dialect – Dialect instance in use.
    - coltype – DBAPI coltype argument received in cursor.description.

  `should_evaluate_none`

    bool(x) -> bool

    Returns True when the argument x is true, False otherwise. The builtins True and False are the only two instances of the class bool. The class bool is a subclass of the class int, and cannot be subclassed.

class `sqlalchemy.types.``INTEGER`

  Bases: `sqlalchemy.types.Integer`

  The SQL INT or INTEGER type.

class `sqlalchemy.types.``NCHAR`(length=None, **kwargs)

  Bases: `sqlalchemy.types.Unicode`

  The SQL NCHAR type.

class `sqlalchemy.types.``NVARCHAR`(length=None, **kwargs)

  Bases: `sqlalchemy.types.Unicode`

  The SQL NVARCHAR type.

class `sqlalchemy.types.``NUMERIC`(precision=None, scale=None, decimal_return_scale=None, asdecimal=True)

  Bases: `sqlalchemy.types.Numeric`

  The SQL NUMERIC type.

class `sqlalchemy.types.``REAL`(precision=None, asdecimal=False, decimal_return_scale=None, **kwargs)

  Bases: `sqlalchemy.types.Float`

  The SQL REAL type.

class `sqlalchemy.types.``SMALLINT`

  Bases: `sqlalchemy.types.SmallInteger`

  The SQL SMALLINT type.

class `sqlalchemy.types.``TEXT`(length=None, collation=None, convert_unicode=False, unicode_error=None, _warn_on_bytestring=False)

  Bases: `sqlalchemy.types.Text`

  The SQL TEXT type.

class `sqlalchemy.types.``TIME`(timezone=False)

  Bases: `sqlalchemy.types.Time`

  The SQL TIME type.

class `sqlalchemy.types.``TIMESTAMP`(timezone=False)

  Bases: `sqlalchemy.types.DateTime`

  The SQL TIMESTAMP type.

  `TIMESTAMP` datatypes have support for timezone storage on some backends, such as PostgreSQL and Oracle. Use the `timezone` argument in order to enable “TIMESTAMP WITH TIMEZONE” for these backends.

  `__init__`(timezone=False)

    Construct a new `TIMESTAMP`.

    Parameters: | timezone – boolean. Indicates that the TIMESTAMP type should enable timezone support, if available on the target database. On a per-dialect basis is similar to “TIMESTAMP WITH TIMEZONE”. If the target database does not support timezones, this flag is ignored.

  `get_dbapi_type`(dbapi)

    Return the corresponding type object from the underlying DB-API, if any.

    > This can be useful for calling `setinputsizes()`, for example.

class `sqlalchemy.types.``VARBINARY`(length=None)

  Bases: `sqlalchemy.types._Binary`

  The SQL VARBINARY type.

class `sqlalchemy.types.``VARCHAR`(length=None, collation=None, convert_unicode=False, unicode_error=None, _warn_on_bytestring=False)

  Bases: `sqlalchemy.types.String`

  The SQL VARCHAR type.

## Vendor-Specific Types

Database-specific types are also available for import from each database’s dialect module. See the Dialects reference for the database you’re interested in.

For example, MySQL has a `BIGINT` type and PostgreSQL has an `INET` type. To use these, import them from the module explicitly:

    from sqlalchemy.dialects import mysql

    table = Table('foo', metadata,
        Column('id', mysql.BIGINT),
        Column('enumerates', mysql.ENUM('a', 'b', 'c'))
    )

Or some PostgreSQL types:

    from sqlalchemy.dialects import postgresql

    table = Table('foo', metadata,
        Column('ipaddress', postgresql.INET),
        Column('elements', postgresql.ARRAY(String))
    )

Each dialect provides the full set of typenames supported by that backend within its __all__ collection, so that a simple import * or similar will import all supported types as implemented for that backend:

    from sqlalchemy.dialects.postgresql import *

    t = Table('mytable', metadata,
               Column('id', INTEGER, primary_key=True),
               Column('name', VARCHAR(300)),
               Column('inetaddr', INET)
    )

Where above, the INTEGER and VARCHAR types are ultimately from sqlalchemy.types, and INET is specific to the PostgreSQL dialect.

Some dialect level types have the same name as the SQL standard type, but also provide additional arguments. For example, MySQL implements the full range of character and string types including additional arguments such as collation and charset:

    from sqlalchemy.dialects.mysql import VARCHAR, TEXT

    table = Table('foo', meta,
        Column('col1', VARCHAR(200, collation='binary')),
        Column('col2', TEXT(charset='latin1'))
    )