# &latex;2e reference manual (May 2014)

This document is an unofficial reference manual for &latex;, a document preparation system, version of May 2014.

This manual was originally translated from `LATEX.HLP` v1.0a in the VMS Help Library. The pre-translation version was written by George D. Greenwade of Sam Houston State University. The &latex; 2.09 version was written by Stephen Gilmore. The &latex;2e version was adapted from this by Torsten Martinsen. Karl Berry made further updates and additions, and gratefully acknowledges using Hypertext Help with &latex;, by Sheldon Green, and &latex; Command Summary (for &latex; 2.09) by L. Botway and C. Biemesderfer (published by the &tex; Users Group as &tex;niques number 10), as reference material (no text was directly copied).

Copyright 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014 Karl Berry.

Copyright 1988, 1994, 2007 Stephen Gilmore.

Copyright 1994, 1995, 1996 Torsten Martinsen.

Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are preserved on all copies.

Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided that the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission notice identical to this one.

Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions.

This document is an unofficial reference manual for &latex;, a document preparation system, version of May 2014.

This manual was originally translated from `LATEX.HLP` v1.0a in the VMS Help Library. The pre-translation version was written by George D. Greenwade of Sam Houston State University. The &latex; 2.09 version was written by Stephen Gilmore. The &latex;2e version was adapted from this by Torsten Martinsen. Karl Berry made further updates and additions, and gratefully acknowledges using Hypertext Help with &latex;, by Sheldon Green, and &latex; Command Summary (for &latex; 2.09) by L. Botway and C. Biemesderfer (published by the &tex; Users Group as &tex;niques number 10), as reference material (no text was directly copied).

Copyright 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014 Karl Berry.

Copyright 1988, 1994, 2007 Stephen Gilmore.

Copyright 1994, 1995, 1996 Torsten Martinsen.

Permission is granted to make and distribute verbatim copies of this manual provided the copyright notice and this permission notice are preserved on all copies.

Permission is granted to copy and distribute modified versions of this manual under the conditions for verbatim copying, provided that the entire resulting derived work is distributed under the terms of a permission notice identical to this one.

Permission is granted to copy and distribute translations of this manual into another language, under the above conditions for modified versions.

## &latex;2e

This document is an unofficial reference manual for &latex;, a document preparation system, version as of May 2014. It is intended to cover &latex;2e, which has been the standard version of &latex; for many years.

## About this document

The &latex; document preparation system is implemented as a macro package for Donald E. Knuth’s &tex; typesetting program. &latex; was originally created by Leslie Lamport; it is now maintained by a group of volunteers (http://latex-project.org). The official documentation written by the &latex; project is available from their web site.

The present document is completely unofficial and has not been reviewed by the &latex; maintainers. Do not send bug reports or anything else about this document to them. Instead, please send all comments to latexrefman-discuss@gna.org.

The home page for this document is http://home.gna.org/latexrefman. That page has links to the current output in various formats, sources, mailing lists, and other infrastructure.

Of course, there are many, many other sources of information about &latex;. Here are a few:

http://www.ctan.org/pkg/latex-doc-ptr

  Two pages of recommended references to &latex; documentation.

http://www.ctan.org/pkg/first-latex-doc

  Writing your first document, with a bit of both text and math.

http://www.ctan.org/pkg/usrguide

  The guide for document authors maintained as part of &latex;; there are several others.

http://tug.org/begin.html

  Introduction to the &tex; system, including &latex;.

## Overview of &latex;

What is &latex;?

&latex; typesets a file of text using the &tex; program and the &latex; “macro package” for &tex;. That is, it processes an input file containing the text of a document with interspersed commands that describe how the text should be formatted. &latex; files are plain text that can be written in any reasonable editor. It produces at least three files as output:

1. The main output file, which is one of:

   `.dvi`

     If invoked as `latex`, a “Device Independent” (`.dvi`) file is produced. This contains commands that can be translated into commands for virtually any output device. You can view such `.dvi` output of &latex; by using a program such as `xdvi` (display directly), `dvips` (convert to PostScript), or `dvipdfmx` (convert to PDF).

   `.pdf`

     If invoked as `pdflatex`, a “Portable Document Format” (`.pdf`) file. Typically, this is a self-contained file, with all fonts and images embedded. This can be very useful, but it does make the output much larger than the `.dvi` produced from the same document.

     If invoked as `lualatex`, a `.pdf` file is created using the Lua&tex; engine (http://luatex.org).

     If invoked as `xelatex`, a `.pdf` file is created using the Xe&tex; engine (http://tug.org/xetex).

   Many other less-common variants of &latex; (and &tex;) exist, which can produce HTML, XML, and other things.

2. The “transcript” or `.log` file that contains summary information and diagnostic messages for any errors discovered in the input file.

3. An “auxiliary” or `.aux` file. This is used by &latex; itself, for things such as cross-references.

An open-ended list of other files might be created. We won’t try to list them all. Xxx components?

In the &latex; input file, a command name starts with a `\`, followed by either (a) a string of letters or (b) a single non-letter. Arguments contained in square brackets, `[]`, are optional while arguments contained in braces, `{}`, are required.

&latex; is case sensitive. Enter all commands in lower case unless explicitly directed to do otherwise.

## Starting & ending

A minimal input file looks like the following:

    \documentclass{class}
    \begin{document}
    your text
    \end{document}

where the class is a valid document class for &latex;. See Document classes, for details of the various document classes available locally.

You may include other &latex; commands between the `\documentclass` and the `\begin{document}` commands (this area is called the preamble).

## Document classes

The class of a given document is defined with the command:

    \documentclass[options]{class}

The `\documentclass` command must be the first command in a &latex; source file.

Built-in &latex; document class names are (many other document classes are available as add-ons; see Overview):

    article  report  book  letter  slides

Standard options are described below.

### Document class options

You can specify so-called global options or class options to the `\documentclass` command by enclosing them in square brackets as usual. To specify more than one option, separate them with a comma:

    \documentclass[option1,option2,...]{class}

Here is the list of the standard class options.

All of the standard classes except `slides` accept the following options for selecting the typeface size (default is `10pt`):

    10pt  11pt  12pt

All of the standard classes accept these options for selecting the paper size (default is `letterpaper`):

    a4paper a5paper b5paper executivepaper legalpaper letterpaper

Miscellaneous other options:

`draft, final`

  mark/do not mark overfull boxes with a big black box; default is `final`.

`fleqn`

  Put displayed formulas flush left; default is centered.

`landscape`

  Selects landscape format; default is portrait.

`leqno`

  Put equation numbers on the left side of equations; default is the right side.

`openbib`

  Use “open” bibliography format.

`titlepage, notitlepage`

  Specifies whether the title page is separate; default depends on the class.

These options are not available with the slides class:

`onecolumn`
`twocolumn`

  Typeset in one or two columns; default is `onecolumn`.

`oneside`
`twoside`

  Selects one- or two-sided layout; default is `oneside`, except for the `book` class.

  The `\evensidemargin` (`\oddsidemargin` parameter determines the distance on even (odd) numbered pages between the left side of the page and the text’s left margin. The defaults vary with the paper size and whether one- or two-side layout is selected. For one-sided printing the text is centered, for two-sided, `\oddsidemargin` is 40% of the difference between `\paperwidth` and `\textwidth`, with `\evensidemargin` the remainder.

`openright`
`openany`

  Determines if a chapter should start on a right-hand page; default is `openright` for book.

The `slides` class offers the option `clock` for printing the time at the bottom of each note.

Additional packages are loaded like this:

    \usepackage[options]{pkg}

To specify more than one pkg, you can separate them with a comma, or use multiple `\usepackage` commands.

Any options given in the `\documentclass` command that are unknown by the selected document class are passed on to the packages loaded with `\usepackage`.

## Fonts

Two important aspects of selecting a font are specifying a size and a style. The &latex; commands for doing this are described here.

### Font styles

The following type style commands are supported by &latex;.

This first group of commands is typically used with an argument, as in `\textit{italic text}`. In the table below, the corresponding command in parenthesis is the “declaration form”, which takes no arguments. The scope of the declaration form lasts until the next type style command or the end of the current group.

These commands, in both the argument form and the declaration form, are cumulative; e.g.,, you can say either `\sffamily\bfseries` or `\bfseries\sffamily` to get bold sans serif.

You can alternatively use an environment form of the declarations; for instance, `\begin{ttfamily}...\end{ttfamily}`.

These commands automatically supply an italic correction if needed.

`\textrm (\rmfamily)`

  Roman.

`\textit (\itshape)`

  Italics.

`\emph`

  Emphasis (switches between `\textit` and `\textrm`).

`\textmd (\mdseries)`

  Medium weight (default).

`\textbf (\bfseries)`

  Boldface.

`\textup (\upshape)`

  Upright (default). The opposite of slanted.

`\textsl (\slshape)`

  Slanted.

`\textsf (\sffamily)`

  Sans serif.

`\textsc (\scshape)`

  Small caps.

`\texttt (\ttfamily)`

  Typewriter.

`\textnormal (\normalfont)`

  Main document font.

`\mathrm`

  Roman, for use in math mode.

`\mathbf`

  Boldface, for use in math mode.

`\mathsf`

  Sans serif, for use in math mode.

`\mathtt`

  Typewriter, for use in math mode.

`\mathit`
`(\mit)`

  Italics, for use in math mode.

`\mathnormal`

  For use in math mode, e.g. inside another type style declaration.

`\mathcal`

  ‘Calligraphic’ letters, for use in math mode.

In addition, the command `\mathversion{bold}` can be used for switching to bold letters and symbols in formulas. `\mathversion{normal}` restores the default.

Finally, the command `\oldstylenums{numerals}` will typeset so-called “old-style” numerals, which have differing heights and depths (and sometimes widths) from the standard “lining” numerals. &latex;’s default fonts support this, and will respect `\textbf` (but not other styles; there are no italic old-style numerals in Computer Modern). Many other fonts have old-style numerals also; sometimes the `textcomp` package must be loaded, and sometimes package options are provided to make them the default. FAQ entry: http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=osf.

&latex; also provides the following commands, which unconditionally switch to the given style, that is, are not cumulative. Also, they are used differently than the above commands: `{\cmd ...}` instead of `\cmd{...}`. These are two very different things.

`\bf`

  Switch to bold face.

`\cal`

  Switch to calligraphic letters for math.

`\em`

  Emphasis (italics within roman, roman within italics).

`\it`

  Italics.

`\rm`

  Roman.

`\sc`

  Small caps.

`\sf`

  Sans serif.

`\sl`

  Slanted (oblique).

`\tt`

  Typewriter (monospace, fixed-width).

Some people consider the unconditional font-switching commands, such as `\tt`, obsolete and only the cumulative commands (`\texttt`) should be used. I (Karl) do not agree. There are perfectly reasonable situations when an unconditional font switch is precisely what you need to get the desired output; for one example, see `description`. Both sets of commands have their place.

### Font sizes

The following standard type size commands are supported by &latex;. The table shows the command name and the corresponding actual font size used (in points) with the ‘`10pt`’, ‘`11pt`’, and ‘`12pt`’ document size options, respectively (see Document class options).

Command | `10pt` | `11pt` | `12pt`
--- | --- | --- | ---
`\tiny` | 5 | 6 | 6
`\scriptsize` | 7 | 8 | 8
`\footnotesize` | 8 | 9 | 10
`\small` | 9 | 10 | 10.95
`\normalsize` (default) | 10 | 10.95 | 12
`\large` | 12 | 12 | 14.4
`\Large` | 14.4 | 14.4 | 17.28
`\LARGE` | 17.28 | 17.28 | 20.74
`\huge` | 20.74 | 20.74 | 24.88
`\Huge` | 24.88 | 24.88 | 24.88

The commands as listed here are “declaration forms”. The scope of the declaration form lasts until the next type style command or the end of the current group. You can also use the environment form of these commands; for instance, `\begin{tiny}...\end{tiny}`.

### Low-level font commands

These commands are primarily intended for writers of macros and packages. The commands listed here are only a subset of the available ones.

`\fontencoding{enc}`

  Select font encoding. Valid encodings include `OT1` and `T1`.

`\fontfamily{family}`

  Select font family. Valid families include:

  - `cmr` for Computer Modern Roman

  - `cmss` for Computer Modern Sans Serif

  - `cmtt` for Computer Modern Typewriter

  and numerous others.

`\fontseries{series}`

  Select font series. Valid series include:

  - `m` Medium (normal)

  - `b` Bold

  - `c` Condensed

  - `bc` Bold condensed

  - `bx` Bold extended

  and various other combinations.

`\fontshape{shape}`

  Select font shape. Valid shapes are:

  - `n` Upright (normal)

  - `it` Italic

  - `sl` Slanted (oblique)

  - `sc` Small caps

  - `ui` Upright italics

  - `ol` Outline

  The two last shapes are not available for most font families.

`\fontsize{size}{skip}`

  Set font size. The first parameter is the font size to switch to and the second is the line spacing to use; this is stored in a parameter named `\baselineskip`. The unit of both parameters defaults to pt. The default `\baselineskip` for the Computer Modern typeface is 1.2 times the `\fontsize`.

  The line spacing is also multiplied by the value of the `\baselinestretch` parameter when the type size changes; the default is 1. However, the best way to “double space” a document, if you should be unlucky enough to have to produce such, is to use the `setspace` package; see http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=linespace.

`\linespread{factor}`

  Equivalent to `\renewcommand{\baselinestretch}{factor}`, and therefore must be followed by `\selectfont` to have any effect. Best specified in the preamble, or use the `setspace` package, as described just above.

  The changes made by calling the font commands described above do not come into effect until `\selectfont` is called.

`\usefont{enc}{family}{series}{shape}`

  The same as invoking `\fontencoding`, `\fontfamily`, `\fontseries` and `\fontshape` with the given parameters, followed by `\selectfont`.

## Layout

Miscellaneous commands for controlling the general layout of the page.

### `\onecolumn`

The `\onecolumn` declaration starts a new page and produces single-column output. This is the default.

### `\twocolumn`

Synopsis:

    \twocolumn[text1col]

The `\twocolumn` declaration starts a new page and produces two-column output. If the optional text1col argument is present, it is typeset in one-column mode before the two-column typesetting starts.

These parameters control typesetting in two-column output:

`\columnsep`

  The distance between columns (35pt by default).

`\columnseprule`

  The width of the rule between columns; the default is 0pt, so there is no rule.

`\columnwidth`

  The width of the current column; this is equal to `\textwidth` in single-column text.

These parameters control float behavior in two-column output:

`\dbltopfraction`

  Maximum fraction at the top of a two-column page that may be occupied by floats. Default ‘`.7`’, can be usefully redefined to (say) ‘`.9`’ to avoid going to float pages so soon.

`\dblfloatpagefraction`

  The minimum fraction of a float page that must be occupied by floats, for a two-column float page. Default ‘`.5`’.

`\dblfloatsep`

  Distance between floats at the top or bottom of a two-column float page. Default ‘`12pt plus2pt minus2pt`’ for ‘`10pt`’ and ‘`11pt`’ documents, ‘`14pt plus2pt minus4pt`’ for ‘`12pt`’.

`\dbltextfloatsep`

  Distance between a multi-column float at the top or bottom of a page and the main text. Default ‘`20pt plus2pt minus4pt`’.

### `\flushbottom`

The `\flushbottom` declaration makes all text pages the same height, adding extra vertical space where necessary to fill out the page.

This is the default if `twocolumn` mode is selected (see Document class options).

### `\raggedbottom`

The `\raggedbottom` declaration makes all pages the natural height of the material on that page. No rubber lengths will be stretched.

### Page layout parameters

`\headheight`

  Height of the box that contains the running head. Default is ‘`30pt`’, except in the `book` class, where it varies with the type size.

`\headsep`

  Vertical distance between the bottom of the header line and the top of the main text. Default is ‘`25pt`’, except in the `book` class, where it varies with the type size.

`\footskip`

  Distance from the baseline of the last line of text to the baseline of the page footer. Default is ‘`30pt`’, except in the `book` class, where it varies with the type size.

`\linewidth`

  Width of the current line, decreased for each nested `list` (see list). Specifically, it is smaller than `\textwidth` by the sum of `\leftmargin` and `\rightmargin` (see itemize). The default varies with the font size, paper width, two-column mode, etc. For an `article` document in ‘`10pt`’, it’s set to ‘`345pt`’; in two-column mode, that becomes ‘`229.5pt`’.

`\textheight`

  The normal vertical height of the page body; the default varies with the font size, document class, etc. For an `article` or `report` document in ‘`10pt`’, it’s set to ‘`43\baselineskip`’; for `book`, it’s ‘`41\baselineskip`’. For ‘`11pt`’, it’s ‘`38\baselineskip`’ and for ‘`12pt`’, ‘`36\baselineskip`’.

`\textwidth`

  The full horizontal width of the entire page body; the default varies as usual. For an `article` or `report` document, it’s ‘`345pt`’ at ‘`10pt`’, ‘`360pt`’ at ‘`11pt`’, and ‘`390pt`’ at ‘`12pt`’. For a `book` document, it’s ‘`4.5in`’ at ‘`10pt`’, and ‘`5in`’ at ‘`11pt`’ or ‘`12pt`’.

  In multi-column output, `\textwidth` remains the width of the entire page body, while `\columnwidth` is the width of one column (see \twocolumn).

  In lists (see list), `\textwidth` remains the width of the entire page body (and `\columnwidth` the width of the entire column), while `\linewidth` may decrease for nested lists.

  Inside a minipage (see minipage) or `\parbox` (see \parbox), all the width-related parameters are set to the specified width, and revert to their normal values at the end of the `minipage` or `\parbox`.

  For completeness: `\hsize` is the &tex; primitive parameter used when text is broken into lines. It should not be used in normal &latex; documents.

`\topmargin`

  Space between the top of the &tex; page (one inch from the top of the paper, by default) and the top of the header. The default is computed based on many other parameters: `\paperheight − 2in − \headheight − \headsep − \textheight − \footskip`, and then divided by two.

`\topskip`

  Minimum distance between the top of the page body and the baseline of the first line of text. For the standard clases, the default is the same as the font size, e.g., ‘`10pt`’ at ‘`10pt`’.

## Sectioning

Sectioning commands provide the means to structure your text into units:

`\part`
`\chapter`

  (report and book class only)

`\section`
`\subsection`
`\subsubsection`
`\paragraph`
`\subparagraph`

All sectioning commands take the same general form, e.g.,

    \chapter[toctitle]{title}

In addition to providing the heading title in the main text, the section title can appear in two other places:

1. The table of contents.

2. The running head at the top of the page.

You may not want the same text in these places as in the main text. To handle this, the sectioning commands have an optional argument toctitle that, when given, specifies the text for these other places.

Also, all sectioning commands have `*`-forms that print title as usual, but do not include a number and do not make an entry in the table of contents. For instance:

    \section*{Preamble}

The `\appendix` command changes the way following sectional units are numbered. The `\appendix` command itself generates no text and does not affect the numbering of parts. The normal use of this command is something like

    \chapter{A Chapter}
    …
    \appendix
    \chapter{The First Appendix}

The `secnumdepth` counter controls printing of section numbers. The setting

    \setcounter{secnumdepth}{level}

suppresses heading numbers at any depth > level, where `chapter` is level zero. (See \setcounter.)

## Cross references

One reason for numbering things like figures and equations is to refer the reader to them, as in “See Figure 3 for more details.”

### `\label`

Synopsis:

    \label{key}

A `\label` command appearing in ordinary text assigns to key the number of the current sectional unit; one appearing inside a numbered environment assigns that number to key.

A key name can consist of any sequence of letters, digits, or punctuation characters. Upper and lowercase letters are distinguished.

To avoid accidentally creating two labels with the same name, it is common to use labels consisting of a prefix and a suffix separated by a colon or period. Some conventionally-used prefixes:

`ch`

  for chapters

`sec`

  for lower-level sectioning commands

`fig`

  for figures

`tab`

  for tables

`eq`

  for equations

Thus, a label for a figure would look like `fig:snark` or `fig.snark`.

### `\pageref{key}`

Synopsis:

    \pageref{key}

The `\pageref`{key} command produces the page number of the place in the text where the corresponding `\label`{key} command appears.

### `\ref{key}`

Synopsis:

    \ref{key}

The `\ref` command produces the number of the sectional unit, equation, footnote, figure, …, of the corresponding `\label` command (see \label). It does not produce any text, such as the word ‘Section’ or ‘Figure’, just the bare number itself.

## Environments

&latex; provides many environments for marking off certain text. Each environment begins and ends in the same manner:

    \begin{envname}
    ...
    \end{envname}

### `abstract`

Synopsis:

    \begin{abstract}
    ...
    \end{abstract}

Environment for producing an abstract, possibly of multiple paragraphs.

### `array`

Synopsis:

    \begin{array}{template}
    col1 text&col1 text&coln}\\
    ...
    \end{array}

Math arrays are produced with the `array` environment, normally within an `equation` environment (see equation). It has a single mandatory template argument describing the number of columns and the alignment within them. Each column col is specified by a single letter that tells how items in that row should be formatted, as follows:

`c`

  centered

`l`

  flush left

`r`

  flush right

Column entries are separated by `&`. Column entries may include other &latex; commands. Each row of the array is terminated with `\\`.

In the template, the construct `@{text}` puts text between columns in each row.

Here’s an example:

    \begin{equation}
      \begin{array}{lrc}
      left1 & right1 & centered1 \\
      left2 & right2 & centered2 \\
      \end{array}
    \end{equation}

The `\arraycolsep` parameter defines half the width of the space separating columns; the default is ‘`5pt`’. See tabular, for other parameters which affect formatting in `array` environments, namely `\arrayrulewidth` and `\arraystretch`.

The `array` environment can only be used in math mode.

### `center`

Synopsis:

    \begin{center}
    line1 \\
    line2 \\
    \end{center}

The `center` environment allows you to create a paragraph consisting of lines that are centered within the left and right margins on the current page. Each line is terminated with the string `\\`.

#### `\centering`

The `\centering` declaration corresponds to the `center` environment. This declaration can be used inside an environment such as `quote` or in a `parbox`. Thus, the text of a figure or table can be centered on the page by putting a `\centering` command at the beginning of the figure or table environment.

Unlike the `center` environment, the `\centering` command does not start a new paragraph; it simply changes how &latex; formats paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit’s format, the scope of the declaration must contain the blank line or `\end` command (of an environment such as quote) that ends the paragraph unit.

Here’s an example:

    \begin{quote}
    \centering
    first line \\
    second line \\
    \end{quote}

### `description`

Synopsis:

    \begin{description}
    \item [label1] item1
    \item [label2] item2
    ...
    \end{description}

The `description` environment is used to make labelled lists. Each label is typeset in bold, flush right. The item text may contain multiple paragraphs.

Another variation: since the bold style is applied to the labels, if you typeset a label in typewriter using `\texttt`, you’ll get bold typewriter: `\item[\texttt{bold and typewriter}]`. This may be too bold, among other issues. To get just typewriter, use `\tt`, which resets all other style variations: `\item[{\tt plain typewriter}]`.

For details about list spacing, see itemize.

### `displaymath`

Synopsis:

    \begin{displaymath}
    math
    \end{displaymath}

or

    \[math\]

The `displaymath` environment (`\[...\]` is a synonym) typesets the math text on its own line, centered by default. The global `fleqn` option makes equations flush left; see Document class options.

No equation number is added to `displaymath` text; to get an equation number, use the `equation` environment (see equation).

### `document`

The `document` environment encloses the body of a document. It is required in every &latex; document. See Starting & ending.

### `enumerate`

Synopsis:

    \begin{enumerate}
    \item item1
    \item item2
    ...
    \end{enumerate}

The `enumerate` environment produces a numbered list. Enumerations can be nested within one another, up to four levels deep. They can also be nested within other paragraph-making environments, such as `itemize` (see itemize) and `description` (see description).

Each item of an enumerated list begins with an `\item` command. There must be at least one `\item` command within the environment.

By default, the numbering at each level is done like this:

1. 1., 2., …

2. (a), (b), …

3. i., ii., …

4. A., B., …

The `enumerate` environment uses the counters `\enumi` through `\enumiv` counters (see Counters). If the optional argument to `\item` is given, the counter is not incremented for that item.

The `enumerate` environment uses the commands `\labelenumi` through `\labelenumiv` to produce the default label. So, you can use `\renewcommand` to change the labels (see \newcommand & \renewcommand). For instance, to have the first level use uppercase letters:

    \renewcommand{\labelenumi}{\Alph{enumi}}

### `eqnarray`

First, a caveat: the `eqnarray` environment has some infelicities which cannot be overcome; the article “Avoid eqnarray!” by Lars Madsen describes them in detail (http://tug.org/TUGboat/tb33-1/tb103madsen.pdf). The bottom line is that it is better to use the `align` environment (and others) from the `amsmath` package.

Nevertheless, here is a description of `eqnarray`:

    \begin{eqnarray}  (or eqnarray*)
    formula1 \\
    formula2 \\
    ...
    \end{eqnarray}

The `eqnarray` environment is used to display a sequence of equations or inequalities. It is very much like a three-column `array` environment, with consecutive rows separated by `\\` and consecutive items within a row separated by an `&`.

`\\*` can also be used to separate equations, with its normal meaning of not allowing a page break at that line.

An equation number is placed on every line unless that line has a `\nonumber` command. Alternatively, The `*`-form of the environment (`\begin{eqnarray*} ... \end{eqnarray*}`) will omit equation numbering entirely, while otherwise being the same as `eqnarray`.

The command `\lefteqn` is used for splitting long formulas across lines. It typesets its argument in display style flush left in a box of zero width.

### `equation`

Synopsis:

    \begin{equation}
    math
    \end{equation}

The `equation` environment starts a `displaymath` environment (see displaymath), e.g., centering the math text on the page, and also places an equation number in the right margin.

### `figure`

    \begin{figure[*]}[placement]
    figbody
    \label{label}
    \caption[loftitle]{text}
    \end{figure}

Figures are objects that are not part of the normal text, and are instead “floated” to a convenient place, such as the top of a page. Figures will not be split between two pages.

When typesetting in double-columns, the starred form produces a full-width figure (across both columns).

The optional argument `[placement]` determines where &latex; will try to place your figure. There are four places where &latex; can possibly put a float:

`t`

  (Top)—at the top of a text page.

`b`

  (Bottom)—at the bottom of a text page. However, `b` is not allowed for full-width floats (`figure*`) with double-column output. To ameliorate this, use the `stfloats` or `dblfloatfix` package, but see the discussion at caveats in the FAQ: http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=2colfloat.

`h`

  (Here)—at the position in the text where the figure environment appears. However, this is not allowed by itself; `t` is automatically added.

  To absolutely force a figure to appear “here”, you can `\usepackage{float}` and use the `H` specifier which it defines. For further discussion, see the FAQ entry at http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=figurehere.

`p`

  (Page of floats)—on a separate float page, which is a page containing no text, only floats.

`!`

  Used in addition to one of the above; for this float only, &latex; ignores the restrictions on both the number of floats that can appear and the relative amounts of float and non-float text on the page. The `!` specifier does not mean “put the float here”; see above.

The standard report and article classes use the default placement `tbp`.

The body of the figure is made up of whatever text, &latex; commands, etc. you wish.

The `\caption` command specifies caption text for the figure. The caption is numbered by default. If loftitle is present, it is used in the list of figures instead of text (see Tables of contents).

Parameters relating to fractions of pages occupied by float and non-float text:

The maximum fraction of the page allowed to be occuped by floats at the bottom; default ‘`.3`’.

`\floatpagefraction`

  The minimum fraction of a float page that must be occupied by floats; default ‘`.5`’.

`\textfraction`

  Minimum fraction of a page that must be text; if floats take up too much space to preserve this much text, floats will be moved to a different page. The default is ‘`.2`’.

`\topfraction`

  Maximum fraction at the top of a page that may be occupied before floats; default ‘`.7`’.

Parameters relating to vertical space around floats:

`\floatsep`

  Space between floats at the top or bottom of a page; default ‘`12pt plus2pt minus2pt`’.

`\intextsep`

  Space above and below a float in the middle of the main text; default ‘`12pt plus2pt minus2pt`’ for ‘`10pt`’ and ‘`11pt`’ styles, ‘`14pt plus4pt minus4pt`’ for ‘`12pt`’.

`\textfloatsep`

  Space between the last (first) float at the top (bottom) of a page; default ‘`20pt plus2pt minus4pt`’.

Parameters relating to the number of floats on a page:

`\bottomnumber`

  Maximum number of floats that can appear at the bottom of a text page; default 1.

`\topnumber`

  Maximum number of floats that can appear at the top of a text page; default 2.

`\totalnumber`

  Maximum number of floats that can appear on a text page; default 3.

The principal &tex; FAQ entry relating to floats: http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=floats.

### `filecontents`: Create external files

Synopsis:

    \begin{filecontents}{filename}
    contents-of-file
    \end{filecontents}
    ...
    \documentclass{my-document-class}

The `filecontents` environment is an initial command, meaning that it can be used only before the `\documentclass` command, as in the synopsis above.

&latex; will create a file named filename with the content contents-of-file preceded by a header comment indicating how and when the file was generated. If the file already exists then nothing will happen.

You can also use the `filecontents` package, which has the following advantages:

- If the file already exists, then it will be overwritten.

- You can use the `filecontents` environment at any point after the declaration `\usepackage{filecontents}`, not just before `\documentclass`.

- The `filecontents` package also provides a `filecontents*` environment which is used in the same way as the `filecontents` environment except that it won’t insert any leading comment, so it is better suited to create files which aren’t in &latex; format.

The `filecontents` environment only creates the file, and is unrelated to using the created file. So you need to use, for instance, `\input` or `\usepackage` or `\bibliography` or whatever is applicable, to use the created file.

This environment is also useful to make a self-contained document, for example, for a bug report, or to keep a `.bib` file with the main document.

### `flushleft`

    \begin{flushleft}
    line1 \\
    line2 \\
    ...
    \end{flushleft}

The `flushleft` environment allows you to create a paragraph consisting of lines that are flush to the left-hand margin and ragged right Each line must be terminated with the string `\\`.

#### `\raggedright`

The `\raggedright` declaration corresponds to the `flushleft` environment. This declaration can be used inside an environment such as `quote` or in a `parbox`.

Unlike the `flushleft` environment, the `\raggedright` command does not start a new paragraph; it only changes how &latex; formats paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit’s format, the scope of the declaration must contain the blank line or `\end` command that ends the paragraph unit.

### `flushright`

    \begin{flushright}
    line1 \\
    line2 \\
    ...
    \end{flushright}

The `flushright` environment allows you to create a paragraph consisting of lines that are flush to the right-hand margin and ragged left. Each line must be terminated with the string `\\`.

#### `\raggedleft`

The `\raggedleft` declaration corresponds to the `flushright` environment. This declaration can be used inside an environment such as `quote` or in a `parbox`.

Unlike the `flushright` environment, the `\raggedleft` command does not start a new paragraph; it only changes how &latex; formats paragraph units. To affect a paragraph unit’s format, the scope of the declaration must contain the blank line or `\end` command that ends the paragraph unit.

### `itemize`

Synopsis:

    \begin{itemize}
    \item item1
    \item item2
    ...
    \end{itemize}

The `itemize` environment produces an “unordered”, “bulleted” list. Itemizations can be nested within one another, up to four levels deep. They can also be nested within other paragraph-making environments, such as `enumerate` (see enumerate).

Each item of an `itemize` list begins with an `\item` command. There must be at least one `\item` command within the environment.

By default, the marks at each level look like this:

1. • (bullet)

2. -- (bold en-dash)

3. * (asterisk)

4. . (centered dot, rendered here as a period)

The `itemize` environment uses the commands `\labelitemi` through `\labelitemiv` to produce the default label. So, you can use `\renewcommand` to change the labels. For instance, to have the first level use diamonds:

    \renewcommand{\labelitemi}{$\diamond$}

The `\leftmargini` through `\leftmarginvi` parameters define the distance between the left margin of the enclosing environment and the left margin of the list. By convention, `\leftmargin` is set to the appropriate `\leftmarginN` when a new level of nesting is entered.

The defaults vary from ‘`.5em`’ (highest levels of nesting) to ‘`2.5em`’ (first level), and are a bit reduced in two-column mode. This example greatly reduces the margin space for outermost lists:

    \setlength{\leftmargini}{1.25em} % default 2.5em

Some parameters that affect list formatting:

`\itemindent`

  Extra indentation before each item in a list; default zero.

`\labelsep`

  Space between the label and text of an item; default ‘`.5em`’.

`\labelwidth`

  Width of the label; default ‘`2em`’, or ‘`1.5em`’ in two-column mode.

`\listparindent`

  Extra indentation added to second and subsequent paragraphs within a list item; default ‘`0pt`’.

`\rightmargin`

  Horizontal distance between the right margin of the list and the enclosing environment; default ‘`0pt`’, except in the `quote`, `quotation`, and `verse` environments, where it is set equal to `\leftmargin`.

Parameters affecting vertical spacing between list items (rather loose, by default).

`\itemsep`

  Vertical space between items. The default is `2pt plus1pt minus1pt` for `10pt` documents, `3pt plus2pt minus1pt` for `11pt`, and `4.5pt plus2pt minus1pt` for `12pt`.

`\parsep`

  Extra vertical space between paragraphs within a list item. Defaults are the same as `\itemsep`.

`\topsep`

  Vertical space between the first item and the preceding paragraph. For top-level lists, the default is `8pt plus2pt minus4pt` for `10pt` documents, `9pt plus3pt minus5pt` for `11pt`, and `10pt plus4pt minus6pt` for `12pt`. These are reduced for nested lists.

`\partopsep`

  Extra space added to `\topsep` when the list environment starts a paragraph. The default is `2pt plus1pt minus1pt` for `10pt` documents, `3pt plus1pt minus1pt` for `11pt`, and `3pt plus2pt minus2pt` for `12pt`.

Especially for lists with short items, it may be desirable to elide space between items. Here is an example defining an `itemize*` environment with no extra spacing between items, or between paragraphs within a single item (`\parskip` is not list-specific, see \parskip):

    \newenvironment{itemize*}%
      {\begin{itemize}%
        \setlength{\itemsep}{0pt}%
        \setlength{\parsep}{0pt}}%
        \setlength{\parskip}{0pt}}%
      {\end{itemize}}

### `letter` environment: writing letters

This environment is used for creating letters. See Letters.

### `list`

The `list` environment is a generic environment which is used for defining many of the more specific environments. It is seldom used in documents, but often in macros.

    \begin{list}{labeling}{spacing}
    \item item1
    \item item2
    ...
    \end{list}

The mandatory labeling argument specifies how items should be labelled (unless the optional argument is supplied to `\item`). This argument is a piece of text that is inserted in a box to form the label. It can and usually does contain other &latex; commands.

The mandatory spacing argument contains commands to change the spacing parameters for the list. This argument will most often be empty, i.e., `{}`, which leaves the default spacing.

The width used for typesetting the list items is specified by `\linewidth` (see Page layout parameters).

### `math`

Synopsis:

    \begin{math}
    math
    \end{math}

The `math` environment inserts the given math within the running text. `\(...\))` and `$...$` are synonyms. See Math formulas.

### `minipage`

    \begin{minipage}[position][height][inner-pos]{width}
    text
    \end{minipage}

The `minipage` environment typesets its body text in a block that will not be broken across pages. This is similar to the `\parbox` command (see \parbox), but unlike `\parbox`, other paragraph-making environments can be used inside a minipage.

The arguments are the same as for `\parbox` (see \parbox).

By default, paragraphs are not indented in the `minipage` environment. You can restore indentation with a command such as `\setlength{\parindent}{1pc}` command.

Footnotes in a `minipage` environment are handled in a way that is particularly useful for putting footnotes in figures or tables. A `\footnote` or `\footnotetext` command puts the footnote at the bottom of the minipage instead of at the bottom of the page, and it uses the `\mpfootnote` counter instead of the ordinary `footnote` counter (see Counters).

However, don’t put one minipage inside another if you are using footnotes; they may wind up at the bottom of the wrong minipage.

### `picture`

    \begin{picture}(width,height)(x offset,y offset)
    … picture commands …
    \end{picture}

The `picture` environment allows you to create just about any kind of picture you want containing text, lines, arrows and circles. You tell &latex; where to put things in the picture by specifying their coordinates. A coordinate is a number that may have a decimal point and a minus sign—a number like `5`, `0.3` or `-3.1416`. A coordinate specifies a length in multiples of the unit length `\unitlength`, so if `\unitlength` has been set to `1cm`, then the coordinate 2.54 specifies a length of 2.54 centimeters.

You should only change the value of `\unitlength`, using the `\setlength` command, outside of a `picture` environment. The default value is `1pt`.

A position is a pair of coordinates, such as `(2.4,-5)`, specifying the point with x-coordinate `2.4` and y-coordinate `-5`. Coordinates are specified in the usual way with respect to an origin, which is normally at the lower-left corner of the picture. Note that when a position appears as an argument, it is not enclosed in braces; the parentheses serve to delimit the argument.

The `picture` environment has one mandatory argument, which is a `position`. It specifies the size of the picture. The environment produces a rectangular box with width and height determined by this argument’s x- and y-coordinates.

The `picture` environment also has an optional `position` argument, following the `size` argument, that can change the origin. (Unlike ordinary optional arguments, this argument is not contained in square brackets.) The optional argument gives the coordinates of the point at the lower-left corner of the picture (thereby determining the origin). For example, if `\unitlength` has been set to `1mm`, the command

    \begin{picture}(100,200)(10,20)

produces a picture of width 100 millimeters and height 200 millimeters, whose lower-left corner is the point (10,20) and whose upper-right corner is therefore the point (110,220). When you first draw a picture, you typically omit the optional argument, leaving the origin at the lower-left corner. If you then want to modify your picture by shifting everything, you can just add the appropriate optional argument.

The environment’s mandatory argument determines the nominal size of the picture. This need bear no relation to how large the picture really is; &latex; will happily allow you to put things outside the picture, or even off the page. The picture’s nominal size is used by &latex; in determining how much room to leave for it.

Everything that appears in a picture is drawn by the `\put` command. The command

    \put (11.3,-.3){...}

puts the object specified by `...` in the picture, with its reference point at coordinates (11.3,-.3). The reference points for various objects will be described below.

The `\put` command creates an LR box. You can put anything that can go in an `\mbox` (see \mbox) in the text argument of the `\put` command. When you do this, the reference point will be the lower left corner of the box.

The `picture` commands are described in the following sections.

#### `\circle`

    \circle[*]{diameter}

The `\circle` command produces a circle with a diameter as close to the specified one as possible. The `*`-form of the command draws a solid circle.

Circles up to 40 pt can be drawn.

#### `\makebox`

`\makebox(width,height)[position]{...}`

The `\makebox` command for the picture environment is similar to the normal `\makebox` command except that you must specify a `width` and `height` in multiples of `\unitlength`.

The optional argument, `[position]`, specifies the quadrant that your text appears in. You may select up to two of the following:

`t`

  Moves the item to the top of the rectangle.

`b`

  Moves the item to the bottom.

`l`

  Moves the item to the left.

`r`

  Moves the item to the right.

See \makebox.

#### `\framebox`

Synopsis:

    \framebox(width,height)[pos]{...}

The `\framebox` command is like `\makebox` (see previous section), except that it puts a frame around the outside of the box that it creates.

The `\framebox` command produces a rule of thickness `\fboxrule`, and leaves a space `\fboxsep` between the rule and the contents of the box.

#### `\dashbox`

Draws a box with a dashed line. Synopsis:

    \dashbox{dlen}(rwidth,rheight)[pos]{text}

`\dashbox` creates a dashed rectangle around text in a `picture` environment. Dashes are dlen units long, and the rectangle has overall width rwidth and height rheight. The text is positioned at optional pos.

A dashed box looks best when the `rwidth` and `rheight` are multiples of the `dlen`.

#### `\frame`

Synopsis:

    \frame{text}

The `\frame` command puts a rectangular frame around text. The reference point is the bottom left corner of the frame. No extra space is put between the frame and the object.

#### `\line`

Synopsis:

    \line(xslope,yslope){length}

The `\line` command draws a line with the given length and slope xslope/yslope.

Standard &latex; can only draw lines with slope = x/y, where x and y have integer values from −6 through 6. For lines of any slope, not to mention other shapes, see the `curve2e` and many many other packages on CTAN.

#### `\linethickness`

The `\linethickness{dim}` command declares the thickness of horizontal and vertical lines in a picture environment to be dim, which must be a positive length.

`\linethickness` does not affect the thickness of slanted lines, circles, or the quarter circles drawn by `\oval`.

#### `\thicklines`

The `\thicklines` command is an alternate line thickness for horizontal and vertical lines in a picture environment; cf. \linethickness and \thinlines.

#### `\thinlines`

The `\thinlines` command is the default line thickness for horizontal and vertical lines in a picture environment; cf. \linethickness and \thicklines.

#### `\multiput`

Synopsis:

    \multiput(x,y)(delta_x,delta_y){n}{obj}

The `\multiput` command copies the object obj in a regular pattern across a picture. obj is first placed at position (x,y), then at (x+\delta x,y+\delta y), and so on, n times.

#### `\oval`

Synopsis:

    \oval(width,height)[portion]

The `\oval` command produces a rectangle with rounded corners. The optional argument portion allows you to select part of the oval via the following:

`t`

  selects the top portion;

`b`

  selects the bottom portion;

`r`

  selects the right portion;

`l`

  selects the left portion.

The “corners” of the oval are made with quarter circles with a maximum radius of 20pt, so large “ovals” will look more like boxes with rounded corners.

#### `\put`

`\put(x coord,y coord){ ... }`

The `\put` command places the item specified by the mandatory argument at the given coordinates.

#### `\shortstack`

Synopsis:

    \shortstack[position]{...\\...\\...}

The `\shortstack` command produces a stack of objects. The valid positions are:

`r`

  Move the objects to the right of the stack.

`l`

  Move the objects to the left of the stack

`c`

  Move the objects to the centre of the stack (default)

Objects are separated with `\\`.

#### `\vector`

Synopsis:

    \vector(x-slope,y-slope){length}

The `\vector` command draws a line with an arrow of the specified length and slope. The x and y values must lie between −4 and +4, inclusive.

### `quotation`

Synopsis:

    \begin{quotation}
    text
    \end{quotation}

The margins of the `quotation` environment are indented on both the left and the right. The text is justified at both margins. Leaving a blank line between text produces a new paragraph.

Unlike the `quote` environment, each paragraph is indented normally.

### `quote`

Snyopsis:

    \begin{quote}
    text
    \end{quote}

The margins of the `quote` environment are indented on both the left and the right. The text is justified at both margins. Leaving a blank line between text produces a new paragraph.

Unlike the `quotation` environment, paragraphs are not indented.

### `tabbing`

Synopsis:

    \begin{tabbing}
    row1col1 \= row1col2 \= row1col3 \= row1col4 \\
    row2col1 \>                \> row2col3 \\
    ...
    \end{tabbing}

The `tabbing` environment provides a way to align text in columns. It works by setting tab stops and tabbing to them much as was done on an ordinary typewriter. It is best suited for cases where the width of each column is constant and known in advance.

This environment can be broken across pages, unlike the `tabular` environment.

The following commands can be used inside a `tabbing` enviroment:

`\\ (tabbing)`

  End a line.

`\= (tabbing)`

  Sets a tab stop at the current position.

`\> (tabbing)`

  Advances to the next tab stop.

`\<`

  Put following text to the left of the local margin (without changing the margin). Can only be used at the start of the line.

`\+`

  Moves the left margin of the next and all the following commands one tab stop to the right, beginning tabbed line if necessary.

`\-`

  Moves the left margin of the next and all the following commands one tab stop to the left, beginning tabbed line if necessary.

`\' (tabbing)`

  Moves everything that you have typed so far in the current column, i.e. everything from the most recent `\>`, `\<`, `\'`, `\\`, or `\kill` command, to the right of the previous column, flush against the current column’s tab stop.

`\` (tabbing)`

  Allows you to put text flush right against any tab stop, including tab stop 0. However, it can’t move text to the right of the last column because there’s no tab stop there. The `\`` command moves all the text that follows it, up to the `\\` or `\end{tabbing}` command that ends the line, to the right margin of the tabbing environment. There must be no `\>` or `\'` command between the `\`` and the command that ends the line.

`\a (tabbing)`

  In a `tabbing` environment, the commands `\=`, `\'` and `\`` do not produce accents as usual (see Accents). Instead, the commands `\a=`, `\a'` and `\a`` are used.

`\kill`

  Sets tab stops without producing text. Works just like `\\` except that it throws away the current line instead of producing output for it. The effect of any `\=`, `\+` or `\-` commands in that line remain in effect.

`\poptabs`

  Restores the tab stop positions saved by the last `\pushtabs`.

`\pushtabs`

  Saves all current tab stop positions. Useful for temporarily changing tab stop positions in the middle of a `tabbing` environment.

`\tabbingsep`

  Distance to left of tab stop moved by `\'`.

This example typesets a Pascal function in a traditional format:

    \begin{tabbing}
    function \= fact(n : integer) : integer;\\
             \> begin \= \+ \\
                   \> if \= n $>$ 1 then \+ \\
                            fact := n * fact(n-1) \- \\
                      else \+ \\
                            fact := 1; \-\- \\
                end;\\
    \end{tabbing}

### `table`

Synopsis:

     \begin{table}[placement]

      body of the table

     \caption{table title}
     \end{table}

Tables are objects that are not part of the normal text, and are usually “floated” to a convenient place, like the top of a page. Tables will not be split between two pages.

The optional argument `[placement]` determines where &latex; will try to place your table. There are four places where &latex; can possibly put a float; these are the same as that used with the `figure` environment, and described there (see figure).

The standard `report` and `article` classes use the default placement `[tbp]`.

The body of the table is made up of whatever text, &latex; commands, etc., you wish. The `\caption` command allows you to title your table.

### `tabular`

Synopsis:

    \begin{tabular}[pos]{cols}
    column 1 entry & column 2 entry ... & column n entry \\
    ...
    \end{tabular}

or

    \begin{tabular*}{width}[pos]{cols}
    column 1 entry & column 2 entry ... & column n entry \\
    ...
    \end{tabular*}

These environments produce a box consisting of a sequence of rows of items, aligned vertically in columns.

`\\` must be used to specify the end of each row of the table, except for the last, where it is optional—unless an `\hline` command (to put a rule below the table) follows.

The mandatory and optional arguments consist of:

`width`

  Specifies the width of the `tabular*` environment. There must be rubber space between columns that can stretch to fill out the specified width.

`pos`

  Specifies the vertical position; default is alignment on the centre of the environment.

  `t`

    align on top row

  `b`

    align on bottom row

`cols`

  Specifies the column formatting. It consists of a sequence of the following specifiers, corresponding to the sequence of columns and intercolumn material.

  `l`

    A column of left-aligned items.

  `r`

    A column of right-aligned items.

  `c`

    A column of centered items.

  `|`

    A vertical line the full height and depth of the environment.

  `@{text}`

    This inserts text in every row. An @-expression suppresses the intercolumn space normally inserted between columns; any desired space before the adjacent item must be included in text.

    To insert commands that are automatically executed before a given column, you have to load the `array` package and use the `>{...}` specifier.

    An `\extracolsep{wd}` command in an @-expression causes an extra space of width `wd` to appear to the left of all subsequent columns, until countermanded by another `\extracolsep` command. Unlike ordinary intercolumn space, this extra space is not suppressed by an @-expression. An `\extracolsep` command can be used only in an @-expression in the `cols` argument.

  `p{wd}`

    Produces a column with each item typeset in a parbox of width wd, as if it were the argument of a `\parbox[t]{wd}` command. However, a `\\` may not appear in the item, except in the following situations:

    1. inside an environment like `minipage`, `array`, or `tabular`.

    2. inside an explicit `\parbox`.

    3. in the scope of a `\centering`, `\raggedright`, or `\raggedleft` declaration. The latter declarations must appear inside braces or an environment when used in a `p`-column element.

  `*{num}{cols}`

    Equivalent to num copies of cols, where num is a positive integer and cols is any list of column-specifiers, which may contain another `*-expression`.

Parameters that control formatting:

`\arrayrulewidth`

  Thickness of the rule created by `|`, `\hline`, and `\vline` in the `tabular` and `array` environments; the default is ‘`.4pt`’.

`\arraystretch`

  Scaling of spacing between rows in the `tabular` and `array` environments; default is ‘`1`’, for no scaling.

`\doublerulesep`

  Horizontal distance between the vertical rules produced by `||` in the `tabular` and `array` environments; default is ‘`2pt`’.

`\tabcolsep`

  Half the width of the space between columns; default is ‘`6pt`’.

The following commands can be used inside a `tabular` environment:

#### `\multicolumn`

Synopsis:

    \multicolumn{cols}{pos}{text}

The `\multicolumn` command makes an entry that spans several columns. The first mandatory argument, cols, specifies the number of columns to span. The second mandatory argument, pos, specifies the formatting of the entry; `c` for centered, `l` for flushleft, `r` for flushright. The third mandatory argument, text, specifies what text to put in the entry.

Here’s an example showing two columns separated by an en-dash; `\multicolumn` is used for the heading:

    \begin{tabular}{r@{--}l}
    \multicolumn{2}{c}{\bf Unicode}\cr
       0x80&0x7FF   \cr
      0x800&0xFFFF  \cr
    0x10000&0x1FFFF \cr
    \end{tabular}

#### `\cline`

Synopsis:

    \cline{i-j}

The `\cline` command draws horizontal lines across the columns specified, beginning in column i and ending in column j, which are specified in the mandatory argument.

#### `\hline`

The `\hline` command draws a horizontal line the width of the enclosing `tabular` or `array` environment. It’s most commonly used to draw a line at the top, bottom, and between the rows of a table.

#### `\vline`

The `\vline` command will draw a vertical line extending the full height and depth of its row. An `\hfill` command can be used to move the line to the edge of the column. It can also be used in an @-expression.

### `thebibliography`

Synopsis:

    \begin{thebibliography}{widest-label}
    \bibitem[label]{cite_key}
    ...
    \end{thebibliography}

The `thebibliography` environment produces a bibliography or reference list.

In the `article` class, this reference list is labelled “References”; in the `report` class, it is labelled “Bibliography”. You can change the label (in the standard classes) by redefining the command `\refname`. For instance, this eliminates it entirely:

    \renewcommand{\refname}{}

The mandatory widest-label argument is text that, when typeset, is as wide as the widest item label produced by the `\bibitem` commands. It is typically given as `9` for bibliographies with less than 10 references, `99` for ones with less than 100, etc.

#### `\bibitem`

Synopsis:

    \bibitem[label]{cite_key}

The `\bibitem` command generates an entry labelled by label. If the label argument is missing, a number is automatically generated using the `enumi` counter. The cite_key is any sequence of letters, numbers, and punctuation symbols not containing a comma.

This command writes an entry to the `.aux` file containing the item’s cite_key and label. When the `.aux` file is read by the `\begin{document}` command, the item’s `label` is associated with `cite_key`, causing references to cite_key with a `\cite` command (see next section) to produce the associated label.

#### `\cite`

Synopsis:

    \cite[subcite]{keys

The keys argument is a list of one or more citation keys, separated by commas. This command generates an in-text citation to the references associated with keys by entries in the `.aux` file.

The text of the optional subcite argument appears after the citation. For example, `\cite[p.~314]{knuth}` might produce ‘[Knuth, p. 314]’.

#### `\nocite`

`\nocite{key_list}`

The `\nocite` command produces no text, but writes `key_list`, which is a list of one or more citation keys, on the `.aux` file.

#### Using Bib&tex;

If you use the Bib&tex; program by Oren Patashnik (highly recommended if you need a bibliography of more than a couple of titles) to maintain your bibliography, you don’t use the `thebibliography` environment (see thebibliography). Instead, you include the lines

    \bibliographystyle{bibstyle}
    \bibliography{bibfile1,bibfile2}

The `\bibliographystyle` command does not produce any output of its own. Rather, it defines the style in which the bibliography will be produced: bibstyle refers to a file bibstyle`.bst`, which defines how your citations will look. The standard style names distributed with Bib&tex; are:

`alpha`

  Sorted alphabetically. Labels are formed from name of author and year of publication.

`plain`

  Sorted alphabetically. Labels are numeric.

`unsrt`

  Like `plain`, but entries are in order of citation.

`abbrv`

  Like `plain`, but more compact labels.

In addition, numerous other Bib&tex; style files exist tailored to the demands of various publications. See http://www.ctan.org/tex-archive/biblio/bibtex/contrib.

The `\bibliography` command is what actually produces the bibliography. The argument to `\bibliography` refers to files named `bibfile.bib`, which should contain your database in Bib&tex; format. Only the entries referred to via `\cite` and `\nocite` will be listed in the bibliography.

### `theorem`

Synopsis:

    \begin{theorem}
    theorem-text
    \end{theorem}

The `theorem` environment produces “Theorem n” in boldface followed by theorem-text, where the numbering possibilities for n are described under `\newtheorem` (see \newtheorem).

### `titlepage`

Synopsis:

    \begin{titlepage}
    text
    \end{titlepage}

The `titlepage` environment creates a title page, i.e., a page with no printed page number or heading. It also causes the following page to be numbered page one. Formatting the title page is left to you. The `\today` command may be useful on title pages (see \today).

You can use the `\maketitle` command (see \maketitle) to produce a standard title page without a `titlepage` environment.

### `verbatim`

Synopsis:

    \begin{verbatim}
    literal-text
    \end{verbatim}

The `verbatim` environment is a paragraph-making environment in which &latex; produces exactly what you type in; for instance the `\` character produces a printed ‘`\`’. It turns &latex; into a typewriter with carriage returns and blanks having the same effect that they would on a typewriter.

The `verbatim` uses a monospaced typewriter-like font (`\tt`).

#### `\verb`

Synopsis:

    \verbcharliteral-textchar
    \verb*charliteral-textchar

The `\verb` command typesets literal-text as it is input, including special characters and spaces, using the typewriter (`\tt`) font. No spaces are allowed between `\verb` or `\verb*` and the delimiter char, which begins and ends the verbatim text. The delimiter must not appear in literal-text.

The `*`-form differs only in that spaces are printed with a “visible space” character.

### `verse`

Synopsis:

    \begin{verse}
    line1 \\
    line2 \\
    ...
    \end{verse}

The `verse` environment is designed for poetry, though you may find other uses for it.

The margins are indented on the left and the right, paragraphs are not indented, and the text is not justified. Separate the lines of each stanza with `\\`, and use one or more blank lines to separate the stanzas.

## Line breaking

The first thing &latex; does when processing ordinary text is to translate your input file into a sequence of glyphs and spaces. To produce a printed document, this sequence must be broken into lines (and these lines must be broken into pages).

&latex; usually does the line (and page) breaking for you, but in some environments, you do the line breaking yourself with the `\\` command, and you can always manually force breaks.

### `\\`[*][morespace]

The `\\` command tells &latex; to start a new line. It has an optional argument, morespace, that specifies how much extra vertical space is to be inserted before the next line. This can be a negative amount.

The `\\*` command is the same as the ordinary `\\` command except that it tells &latex; not to start a new page after the line.

### `\obeycr` & `\restorecr`

The `\obeycr` command makes a return in the input file (‘`^^M`’, internally) the same as `\\` (followed by `\relax`). So each new line in the input will also be a new line in the output.

`\restorecr` restores normal line-breaking behavior.

### `\newline`

The `\newline` command breaks the line at the present point, with no stretching of the text before it. It can only be used in paragraph mode.

### `\-` (discretionary hyphen)

The `\-` command tells &latex; that it may hyphenate the word at that point. &latex; is very good at hyphenating, and it will usually find most of the correct hyphenation points, and almost never use an incorrect one. The `\-` command is used for the exceptional cases.

When you insert `\-` commands in a word, the word will only be hyphenated at those points and not at any of the hyphenation points that &latex; might otherwise have chosen.

### `\fussy`

The declaration `\fussy` (which is the default) makes &tex; picky about line breaking. This usually avoids too much space between words, at the cost of an occasional overfull box.

This command cancels the effect of a previous `\sloppy` command (see \sloppy.

### `\sloppy`

The declaration `\sloppy` makes &tex; less fussy about line breaking. This will avoid overfull boxes, at the cost of loose interword spacing.

Lasts until a `\fussy` command is issued (see \fussy).

### `\hyphenation`

Synopsis:

    \hyphenation{word-one word-two}

The `\hyphenation` command declares allowed hyphenation points with a `-` character in the given words. The words are separated by spaces. &tex; will only hyphenate if the word matches exactly, no inflections are tried. Multiple `\hyphenation` commands accumulate. Some examples (the default &tex; hyphenation patterns misses the hyphenations in these words):

    \hyphenation{ap-pen-dix col-umns data-base data-bases}

### `\linebreak` & `\nolinebreak`

Synopses:

    \linebreak[priority]
    \nolinebreak[priority]

By default, the `\linebreak` (`\nolinebreak`) command forces (prevents) a line break at the current position. For `\linebreak`, the spaces in the line are stretched out so that it extends to the right margin as usual.

With the optional argument priority, you can convert the command from a demand to a request. The priority must be a number from 0 to 4. The higher the number, the more insistent the request.

## Page breaking

&latex; starts new pages asynchronously, when enough material has accumulated to fill up a page. Usually this happens automatically, but sometimes you may want to influence the breaks.

### `\cleardoublepage`

The `\cleardoublepage` command ends the current page and causes all figures and tables that have so far appeared in the input to be printed. In a two-sided printing style, it also makes the next page a right-hand (odd-numbered) page, producing a blank page if necessary.

### `\clearpage`

The `\clearpage` command ends the current page and causes all figures and tables that have so far appeared in the input to be printed.

### `\newpage`

The `\newpage` command ends the current page, but does not clear floats (see `\clearpage` above).

### `\enlargethispage`

`\enlargethispage{size}`

`\enlargethispage*{size}`

Enlarge the `\textheight` for the current page by the specified amount; e.g. `\enlargethispage{\baselineskip}` will allow one additional line.

The starred form tries to squeeze the material together on the page as much as possible. This is normally used together with an explicit `\pagebreak`.

### `\pagebreak` & `\nopagebreak`

Synopses:

    \pagebreak[priority]
    \nopagebreak[priority]

By default, the `\pagebreak` (`\nopagebreak`) command forces (prevents) a page break at the current position. With `\pagebreak`, the vertical space on the page is stretched out where possible so that it extends to the normal bottom margin.

With the optional argument priority, you can convert the `\pagebreak` command from a demand to a request. The number must be a number from 0 to 4. The higher the number, the more insistent the request is.

## Footnotes

Footnotes can be produced in one of two ways. They can be produced with one command, the `\footnote` command. They can also be produced with two commands, the `\footnotemark` and the `\footnotetext` commands.

### `\footnote`

Synopsis:

    \footnote[number]{text}

The `\footnote` command places the numbered footnote text at the bottom of the current page. The optional argument number changes the default footnote number.

This command can only be used in outer paragraph mode; i.e., you cannot use it in sectioning commands like `\chapter`, in figures, tables or in a `tabular` environment. (See following sections.)

### `\footnotemark`

With no optional argument, the `\footnotemark` command puts the current footnote number in the text. This command can be used in inner paragraph mode. You give the text of the footnote separately, with the `\footnotetext` command.

This command can be used to produce several consecutive footnote markers referring to the same footnote with

    \footnotemark[\value{footnote}]

after the first `\footnote` command.

### `\footnotetext`

Synopsis:

    \footnotetext[number]{text}

The `\footnotetext` command places text at the bottom of the page as a footnote. This command can come anywhere after the `\footnotemark` command. The `\footnotetext` command must appear in outer paragraph mode.

The optional argument number changes the default footnote number.

### Symbolic footnotes

If you want to use symbols for footnotes, rather than increasing numbers, redefine `\thefootnote` like this:

    \renewcommand{\thefootnote}{\fnsymbol{footnote}}

The `\fnsymbol` command produces a predefined series of symbols (see \alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol). If you want to use a different symbol as your footnote mark, you’ll need to also redefine `\@fnsymbol`.

### Footnote parameters

`\footnoterule`

  Produces the rule separating the main text on a page from the page’s footnotes. Default dimensions: `0.4pt` thick (or wide), and `0.4\columnwidth` long in the standard document classes (except slides, where it does not appear).

`\footnotesep`

  The height of the strut placed at the beginning of the footnote. By default, this is set to the normal strut for `\footnotesize` fonts (see Font sizes), therefore there is no extra space between footnotes. This is ‘`6.65pt`’ for ‘`10pt`’, ‘`7.7pt`’ for ‘`11pt`’, and ‘`8.4pt`’ for ‘`12pt`’.

## Definitions

&latex; has support for making new commands of many different kinds.

### `\newcommand` & `\renewcommand`

`\newcommand` and `\renewcommand` define and redefine a command, respectively. Synopses:

      \newcommand[*]{cmd}[nargs][optarg]{defn}
    \renewcommand[*]{cmd}[nargs][optarg]{defn}

`*`

  The *-form of these commands requires that the arguments not contain multiple paragraphs of text (not `\long`, in plain &tex; terms).

cmd

  The command name beginning with `\`. For `\newcommand`, it must not be already defined and must not begin with `\end`; for `\renewcommand`, it must already be defined.

nargs

  An optional integer from 1 to 9 specifying the number of arguments that the command will take. The default is for the command to have no arguments.

optarg

  If this optional parameter is present, it means that the command’s first argument is optional. The default value of the optional argument (i.e., if it is not specified in the call) is optarg, or, if that argument is present in the `\newcommand` but has an empty value, the string ‘`def`’.

defn

  The text to be substituted for every occurrence of `cmd`; a construct of the form `#n` in defn is replaced by the text of the nth argument.

### `\newcounter`

Synopsis:

    \newcounter{cnt}[countername]

The `\newcounter` command defines a new counter named cnt. The new counter is initialized to zero.

Given the optional argument `[countername]`, cnt will be reset whenever countername is incremented.

See Counters, for more information about counters.

### `\newlength`

Synopsis:

    \newlength{\arg}

The `\newlength` command defines the mandatory argument as a `length` command with a value of `0in`. The argument must be a control sequence, as in `\newlength{\foo}`. An error occurs if `\foo` is already defined.

See Lengths, for how to set the new length to a nonzero value, and for more information about lengths in general.

### `\newsavebox`

Synopsis:

    \newsavebox{cmd}

Defines `\cmd`, which must be a command name not already defined, to refer to a new bin for storing boxes.

### `\newenvironment` & `\renewenvironment`

Synopses:

      \newenvironment[*]{env}[nargs][default]{begdef}{enddef}
    \renewenvironment[*]{env}[nargs]{begdef}{enddef}

These commands define or redefine an environment env, that is, `\begin{env} … \end{env}`.

`*`

  The *-form of these commands requires that the arguments (not the contents of the environment) not contain multiple paragraphs of text.

env

  The name of the environment. For `\newenvironment`, env must not be an existing environment, and the command `\env` must be undefined. For `\renewenvironment`, env must be the name of an existing environment.

nargs

  An integer from 1 to 9 denoting the number of arguments of the newly-defined environment. The default is no arguments.

default

  If this is specified, the first argument is optional, and default gives the default value for that argument.

begdef

  The text expanded at every occurrence of `\begin{env}`; a construct of the form `#n` in begdef is replaced by the text of the nth argument.

enddef

  The text expanded at every occurrence of `\end{env}`. It may not contain any argument parameters.

### `\newtheorem`

    \newtheorem{newenv}{label}[within]
    \newtheorem{newenv}[numbered_like]{label}

This command defines a theorem-like environment. Arguments:

newenv

  The name of the environment to be defined; must not be the name of an existing environment or otherwise defined.

label

  The text printed at the beginning of the environment, before the number. For example, ‘`Theorem`’.

numbered_like

  (Optional.) The name of an already defined theorem-like environment; the new environment will be numbered just like numbered_like.

within

  (Optional.) The name of an already defined counter, a sectional unit. The new theorem counter will be reset at the same time as the within counter.

At most one of numbered_like and within can be specified, not both.

### `\newfont`

Synopsis:

    \newfont{cmd}{fontname}

Defines a control sequence `\cmd`, which must not already be defined, to make fontname be the current font. The file looked for on the system is named `fontname.tfm`.

This is a low-level command for setting up to use an individual font. More commonly, fonts are defined in families through `.fd` files.

### `\protect`

Footnotes, line breaks, any command that has an optional argument, and many more are so-called fragile commands. When a fragile command is used in certain contexts, called moving arguments, it must be preceded by `\protect`. In addition, any fragile commands within the arguments must have their own `\protect`.

Some examples of moving arguments are `\caption` (see figure), `\thanks` (see \maketitle), and expressions in `tabular` and `array` environments (see tabular).

Commands which are not fragile are called robust. They must not be preceded by `\protect`.

See also:

http://www-h.eng.cam.ac.uk/help/tpl/textprocessing/teTeX/latex/latex2e-html/fragile.html

http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=protect

## Counters

Everything &latex; numbers for you has a counter associated with it. The name of the counter is the same as the name of the environment or command that produces the number, except with no `\`. (`enumi`–`enumiv` are used for the nested enumerate environment.) Below is a list of the counters used in &latex;’s standard document classes to control numbering.

    part            paragraph       figure          enumi
    chapter         subparagraph    table           enumii
    section         page            footnote        enumiii
    subsection      equation        mpfootnote      enumiv
    subsubsection

### `\alph \Alph \arabic \roman \Roman \fnsymbol`: Printing counters

All of these commands take a single counter as an argument, for instance, `\alph{enumi}`.

`\alph`

  prints counter using lowercase letters: ‘a’, ‘b’, ...

`\Alph`

  uses uppercase letters: ‘A’, ‘B’, ...

`\arabic`

  uses Arabic numbers: ‘1’, ‘2’, ...

`\roman`

  uses lowercase roman numerals: ‘i’, ‘ii’, ...

`\roman`

  uses uppercase roman numerals: ‘I’, ‘II’, ...

`\fnsymbol`

  prints the value of counter in a specific sequence of nine symbols (conventionally used for labeling footnotes). The value of counter must be between 1 and 9, inclusive.

  The symbols mostly aren’t supported in Info, but here are the names:

      asterisk(*) dagger ddagger section-sign paragraph-sign parallel
      double-asterisk(**) double-dagger double-ddagger

### `\usecounter{counter}`

Synopsis:

    \usecounter{counter}

The `\usecounter` command is used in the second argument of the `list` environment to specify counter to be used to number the list items.

### `\value{counter}`

Synopsis:

    \value{counter}

The `\value` command produces the value of counter. It can be used anywhere &latex; expects a number, for example:

    \setcounter{myctr}{3}
    \addtocounter{myctr}{1}
    \hspace{\value{myctr}\parindent}

### `\setcounter{counter}{value}`

Synopsis:

    \setcounter{\counter}{value}

The `\setcounter` command sets the value of \counter to the value argument.

### `\addtocounter{counter}{value}`

The `\addtocounter` command increments counter by the amount specified by the value argument, which may be negative.

### `\refstepcounter{counter}`

The `\refstepcounter` command works in the same way as `\stepcounter` See \stepcounter, except it also defines the current `\ref` value to be the result of `\thecounter`.

### `\stepcounter{counter}`

The `\stepcounter` command adds one to counter and resets all subsidiary counters.

### `\day \month \year`: Predefined counters

&latex; defines counters for the day of the month (`\day`, 1–31), month of the year (`\month`, 1–12), and year (`\year`, Common Era). When &tex; starts up, they are set to the current values on the system where &tex; is running. They are not updated as the job progresses.

The related command `\today` produces a string representing the current day (see \today).

## Lengths

A `length` is a measure of distance. Many &latex; commands take a length as an argument.

### `\setlength{\len}{value}`

The `\setlength` sets the value of \len to the value argument, which can be expressed in any units that &latex; understands, i.e., inches (`in`), millimeters (`mm`), points (`pt`), big points (`bp`, etc.

### \addtolength{\len}{amount}

The `\addtolength` command increments a “length command” \len by the amount specified in the amount argument, which may be negative.

### `\settodepth`

`\settodepth{\gnat}{text}`

The `\settodepth` command sets the value of a `length` command equal to the depth of the `text` argument.

### `\settoheight`

`\settoheight{\gnat}{text}`

The `\settoheight` command sets the value of a `length` command equal to the height of the `text` argument.

### `\settowidth{\len}{text}`

The `\settowidth` command sets the value of the command \len to the width of the text argument.

### Predefined lengths

`\width`

`\height`

`\depth`

`\totalheight`

These length parameters can be used in the arguments of the box-making commands (see Boxes). They specify the natural width, etc., of the text in the box. `\totalheight` equals `\height` + `\depth`. To make a box with the text stretched to double the natural size, e.g., say

`\makebox[2\width]{Get a stretcher}`

## Making paragraphs

A paragraph is ended by one or more completely blank lines—lines not containing even a `%`. A blank line should not appear where a new paragraph cannot be started, such as in math mode or in the argument of a sectioning command.

### `\indent`

`\indent` produces a horizontal space whose width equals the width of the `\parindent` length, the normal paragraph indentation. It is used to add paragraph indentation where it would otherwise be suppressed.

The default value for `\parindent` is `1em` in two-column mode, otherwise `15pt` for `10pt` documents, `17pt` for `11pt`, and `1.5em` for `12pt`.

### `\noindent`

When used at the beginning of the paragraph, `\noindent` suppresses any paragraph indentation. It has no effect when used in the middle of a paragraph.

### `\parskip`

`\parskip` is a rubber length defining extra vertical space added before each paragraph. The default is `0pt plus1pt`.

### Marginal notes

Synopsis:

    \marginpar[left]{right}

The `\marginpar` command creates a note in the margin. The first line of the note will have the same baseline as the line in the text where the `\marginpar` occurs.

When you only specify the mandatory argument right, the text will be placed

- in the right margin for one-sided layout;

- in the outside margin for two-sided layout;

- in the nearest margin for two-column layout.

The command `\reversemarginpar` places subsequent marginal notes in the opposite (inside) margin. `\normalmarginpar` places them in the default position.

When you specify both arguments, left is used for the left margin, and right is used for the right margin.

The first word will normally not be hyphenated; you can enable hyphenation there by beginning the node with `\hspace{0pt}`.

These parameters affect the formatting of the note:

`\marginparpush`

  Minimum vertical space between notes; default ‘`7pt`’ for ‘`12pt`’ documents, ‘`5pt`’ else.

`\marginparsep`

  Horizontal space between the main text and the note; default ‘`11pt`’ for ‘`10pt`’ documents, ‘`10pt`’ else.

`\marginparwidth`

  Width of the note itself; default for a one-sided ‘`10pt`’ document is ‘`90pt`’, ‘`83pt`’ for ‘`11pt`’, and ‘`68pt`’ for ‘`12pt`’; ‘`17pt`’ more in each case for a two-sided document. In two column mode, the default is ‘`48pt`’.

The standard &latex; routine for marginal notes does not prevent notes from falling off the bottom of the page.

## Math formulas

There are three environments that put &latex; in math mode:

`math`

  For formulas that appear right in the text.

`displaymath`

  For formulas that appear on their own line.

`equation`

  The same as the displaymath environment except that it adds an equation number in the right margin.

The `math` environment can be used in both paragraph and LR mode, but the `displaymath` and `equation` environments can be used only in paragraph mode. The `math` and `displaymath` environments are used so often that they have the following short forms:

    \(...\)   instead of   \begin{math}...\end{math}
    \[...\]   instead of   \begin{displaymath}...\end{displaymath}

In fact, the `math` environment is so common that it has an even shorter form:

    $ ... $   instead of   \(...\)

The `\boldmath` command changes math letters and symbols to be in a bold font. It is used outside of math mode. Conversely, the `\unboldmath` command changes math glyphs to be in a normal font; it too is used outside of math mode.

The `\displaystyle` declaration forces the size and style of the formula to be that of `displaymath`, e.g., with limits above and below summations. For example

    $\displaystyle \sum_{n=0}^\infty x_n $

### Subscripts & superscripts

To get an expression exp to appear as a subscript, you just type `_{`exp`}`. To get exp to appear as a superscript, you type `^{`exp`}`. &latex; handles superscripted superscripts and all of that stuff in the natural way. It even does the right thing when something has both a subscript and a superscript.

### Math symbols

&latex; provides almost any mathematical symbol you’re likely to need. The commands for generating them can be used only in math mode. For example, if you include `$\pi$` in your source, you will get the pi symbol (\pi) in your output.

`\|`

  \|

`\aleph`

  \aleph

`\alpha`

  \alpha

`\amalg`

  \amalg (binary operation)

`\angle`

  \angle

`\approx`

  \approx (relation)

`\ast`

  \ast (binary operation)

`\asymp`

  \asymp (relation)

`\backslash`

  \ (delimiter)

`\beta`

  \beta

`\bigcap`

  \bigcap

`\bigcirc`

  \bigcirc (binary operation)

`\bigcup`

  \bigcup

`\bigodot`

  \bigodot

`\bigoplus`

  \bigoplus

`\bigotimes`

  \bigotimes

`\bigtriangledown`

  \bigtriangledown (binary operation)

`\bigtriangleup`

  \bigtriangleup (binary operation)

`\bigsqcup`

  \bigsqcup

`\biguplus`

  \biguplus

`\bigcap`

  \bigvee

`\bigwedge`

  \bigwedge

`\bot`

  \bot

`\bowtie`

  \bowtie (relation)

`\Box`

  (square open box symbol)

`\bullet`

  \bullet (binary operation)

`\cap`

  \cap (binary operation)

`\cdot`

  \cdot (binary operation)

`\chi`

  \chi

`\circ`

  \circ (binary operation)

`\clubsuit`

  \clubsuit

`\cong`

  \cong (relation)

`\coprod`

  \coprod

`\cup`

  \cup (binary operation)

`\dagger`

  \dagger (binary operation)

`\dashv`

  \dashv (relation)

`\ddagger`

  \dagger (binary operation)

`\Delta`

  \Delta

`\delta`

  \delta

`\Diamond`

  bigger \diamond

`\diamond`

  \diamond (binary operation)

`\diamondsuit`

  \diamondsuit

`\div`

  \div (binary operation)

`\doteq`

  \doteq (relation)

`\downarrow`

  \downarrow (delimiter)

`\Downarrow`

  \Downarrow (delimiter)

`\ell`

  \ell

`\emptyset`

  \emptyset

`\epsilon`

  \epsilon

`\equiv`

  \equiv (relation)

`\eta`

  \eta

`\exists`

  \exists

`\flat`

  \flat

`\forall`

  \forall

`\frown`

  \frown (relation)

`\Gamma`

  \Gamma

`\gamma`

  \gamma

`\ge`

  \ge

`\geq`

  \geq (relation)

`\gets`

  \gets

`\gg`

  \gg (relation)

`\hbar`

  \hbar

`\heartsuit`

  \heartsuit

`\hookleftarrow`

  \hookleftarrow

`\hookrightarrow`

  \hookrightarrow

`\iff`

  \iff

`\Im`

  \Im

`\in`

  \in (relation)

`\infty`

  \infty

`\int`

  \int

`\iota`

  \iota

`\Join`

  condensed bowtie symbol (relation)

`\kappa`

  \kappa

`\Lambda`

  \Lambda

`\lambda`

  \lambda

`\land`

  \land

`\langle`

  \langle (delimiter)

`\lbrace`

  \lbrace (delimiter)

`\lbrack`

  \lbrack (delimiter)

`\lceil`

  \lceil (delimiter)

`\le`

  \le

`\leadsto`
`\Leftarrow`

  \Leftarrow

`\leftarrow`

  \leftarrow

`\leftharpoondown`

  \leftharpoondown

`\leftharpoonup`

  \leftharpoonup

`\Leftrightarrow`

  \Leftrightarrow

`\leftrightarrow`

  \leftrightarrow

`\leq`

  \leq (relation)

`\lfloor`

  \lfloor (delimiter)

`\lhd`

  (left-pointing arrow head)

`\ll`

  \ll (relation)

`\lnot`

  \lnot

`\longleftarrow`

  \longleftarrow

`\longleftrightarrow`

  \longleftrightarrow

`\longmapsto`

  \longmapsto

`\longrightarrow`

  \longrightarrow

`\lor`

  \lor

`\mapsto`

  \mapsto

`\mho`
`\mid`

  \mid (relation)

`\models`

  \models (relation)

`\mp`

  \mp (binary operation)

`\mu`

  \mu

`\nabla`

  \nabla

`\natural`

  \natural

`\ne`

  \ne

`\nearrow`

  \nearrow

`\neg`

  \neg

`\neq`

  \neq (relation)

`\ni`

  \ni (relation)

`\not`

  Overstrike a following operator with a /, as in \not=.

`\notin`

  \ni

`\nu`

  \nu

`\nwarrow`

  \nwarrow

`\odot`

  \odot (binary operation)

`\oint`

  \oint

`\Omega`

  \Omega

`\omega`

  \omega

`\ominus`

  \ominus (binary operation)

`\oplus`

  \oplus (binary operation)

`\oslash`

  \oslash (binary operation)

`\otimes`

  \otimes (binary operation)

`\owns`

  \owns

`\parallel`

  \parallel (relation)

`\partial`

  \partial

`\perp`

  \perp (relation)

`\phi`

  \phi

`\Pi`

  \Pi

`\pi`

  \pi

`\pm`

  \pm (binary operation)

`\prec`

  \prec (relation)

`\preceq`

  \preceq (relation)

`\prime`

  \prime

`\prod`

  \prod

`\propto`

  \propto (relation)

`\Psi`

  \Psi

`\psi`

  \psi

`\rangle`

  \rangle (delimiter)

`\rbrace`

  \rbrace (delimiter)

`\rbrack`

  \rbrack (delimiter)

`\rceil`

  \rceil (delimiter)

`\Re`

  \Re

`\rfloor`

  \rfloor

`\rhd`

  (binary operation)

`\rho`

  \rho

`\Rightarrow`

  \Rightarrow

`\rightarrow`

  \rightarrow

`\rightharpoondown`

  \rightharpoondown

`\rightharpoonup`

  \rightharpoonup

`\rightleftharpoons`

  \rightleftharpoons

`\searrow`

  \searrow

`\setminus`

  \setminus (binary operation)

`\sharp`

  \sharp

`\Sigma`

  \Sigma

`\sigma`

  \sigma

`\sim`

  \sim (relation)

`\simeq`

  \simeq (relation)

`\smallint`

  \smallint

`\smile`

  \smile (relation)

`\spadesuit`

  \spadesuit

`\sqcap`

  \sqcap (binary operation)

`\sqcup`

  \sqcup (binary operation)

`\sqsubset`

  (relation)

`\sqsubseteq`

  \sqsubseteq (relation)

`\sqsupset`

  (relation)

`\sqsupseteq`

  \sqsupseteq (relation)

`\star`

  \star (binary operation)

`\subset`

  \subset (relation)

`\subseteq`

  \subseteq (relation)

`\succ`

  \succ (relation)

`\succeq`

  \succeq (relation)

`\sum`

  \sum

`\supset`

  \supset (relation)

`\supseteq`

  \supseteq (relation)

`\surd`

  \surd

`\swarrow`

  \swarrow

`\tau`

  \tau

`\theta`

  \theta

`\times`

  \times (binary operation)

`\to`

  \to

`\top`

  \top

`\triangle`

  \triangle

`\triangleleft`

  \triangleleft (binary operation)

`\triangleright`

  \triangleright (binary operation)

`\unlhd`

  left-pointing arrowhead with line under (binary operation)

`\unrhd`

  right-pointing arrowhead with line under (binary operation)

`\Uparrow`

  \Uparrow (delimiter)

`\uparrow`

  \uparrow (delimiter)

`\Updownarrow`

  \Updownarrow (delimiter)

`\updownarrow`

  \updownarrow (delimiter)

`\uplus`

  \uplus (binary operation)

`\Upsilon`

  \Upsilon

`\upsilon`

  \upsilon

`\varepsilon`

  \varepsilon

`\varphi`

  \varphi

`\varpi`

  \varpi

`\varrho`

  \varrho

`\varsigma`

  \varsigma

`\vartheta`

  \vartheta

`\vdash`

  \vdash (relation)

`\vee`

  \vee (binary operation)

`\Vert`

  \Vert (delimiter)

`\vert`

  \vert (delimiter)

`\wedge`

  \wedge (binary operation)

`\wp`

  \wp

`\wr`

  \wr (binary operation)

`\Xi`

  \Xi

`\xi`

  \xi

`\zeta`

  \zeta

### Math functions

These commands produce roman function names in math mode with proper spacing.

`\arccos`

  \arccos

`\arcsin`

  \arcsin

`\arctan`

  \arctan

`\arg`

  \arg

`\bmod`

  Binary modulo operator (x \bmod y)

`\cos`

  \cos

`\cosh`

  \cosh

`\cot`

  \cos

`\coth`

  \cosh

`\csc`

  \csc

`\deg`

  \deg

`\det`

  \deg

`\dim`

  \dim

`\exp`

  \exp

`\gcd`

  \gcd

`\hom`

  \hom

`\inf`

  \inf

`\ker`

  \ker

`\lg`

  \lg

`\lim`

  \lim

`\liminf`

  \liminf

`\limsup`

  \limsup

`\ln`

  \ln

`\log`

  \log

`\max`

  \max

`\min`

  \min

`\pmod`

  parenthesized modulus, as in (\pmod 2^n - 1)

`\Pr`

  \Pr

`\sec`

  \sec

`\sin`

  \sin

`\sinh`

  \sinh

`\sup`

  \sup

`\tan`

  \tan

`\tanh`

  \tanh

### Math accents

&latex; provides a variety of commands for producing accented letters in math. These are different from accents in normal text (see Accents).

`\acute`

  Math acute accent: \acute{x}.

`\bar`

  Math bar-over accent: \bar{x}.

`\breve`

  Math breve accent: \breve{x}.

`\check`

  Math háček (check) accent: \check{x}.

`\ddot`

  Math dieresis accent: \ddot{x}.

`\dot`

  Math dot accent: \dot{x}.

`\grave`

  Math grave accent: \grave{x}.

`\hat`

  Math hat (circumflex) accent: \hat{x}.

`\imath`

  Math dotless i.

`\jmath`

  Math dotless j.

`\mathring`

  Math ring accent: x*.

`\tilde`

  Math tilde accent: \tilde{x}.

`\vec`

  Math vector symbol: \vec{x}.

`\widehat`

  Math wide hat accent: \widehat{x+y}.

`\widehat`

  Math wide tilde accent: \widetilde{x+y}.

### Spacing in math mode

In a `math` environment, &latex; ignores the spaces you type and puts in the spacing according to the normal rules for mathematics texts. If you want different spacing, &latex; provides the following commands for use in math mode:

`\;`

  A thick space (5\over18\,quad).

`\:`
`\>`

  Both of these produce a medium space (2\over9\,quad).

`\,`

  A thin space (1\over6\,quad); not restricted to math mode.

`\!`

  A negative thin space (-{1\over6}\,quad).

### Math miscellany

`\*`

  A “discretionary” multiplication symbol, at which a line break is allowed.

`\cdots`

  A horizontal ellipsis with the dots raised to the center of the line.

`\ddots`

  A diagonal ellipsis: \ddots.

`\frac{num}{den}`

  Produces the fraction `num` divided by `den`.

`\left delim1 ... \right delim2`

  The two delimiters need not match; ‘`.`’ acts as a null delimiter, producing no output. The delimiters are sized according to the math in between. Example: `\left( \sum_i=1^10 a_i \right]`.

`\overbrace{text}`

  Generates a brace over text. For example, \overbrace{x+\cdots+x}^{k \rm\;times}.

`\overline{text}`

  Generates a horizontal line over tex. For exampe, \overline{x+y}.

`\sqrt[root]{arg}`

  Produces the representation of the square root of arg. The optional argument root determines what root to produce. For example, the cube root of `x+y` would be typed as `$\sqrt[3]{x+y}$`.

`\stackrel{text}{relation}`

  Puts text above relation. For example, `\stackrel{f}{\longrightarrow}`.

`\underbrace{math}`

  Generates math with a brace underneath.

`\underline{text}`

  Causes text, which may be either math mode or not, to be underlined. The line is always below the text, taking account of descenders.

`\vdots`

  Produces a vertical ellipsis.

## Modes

When &latex; is processing your input text, it is always in one of three modes:

- Paragraph mode

- Math mode

- Left-to-right mode, called LR mode for short

&latex; changes mode only when it goes up or down a staircase to a different level, though not all level changes produce mode changes. Mode changes occur only when entering or leaving an environment, or when &latex; is processing the argument of certain text-producing commands.

“Paragraph mode” is the most common; it’s the one &latex; is in when processing ordinary text. In that mode, &latex; breaks your text into lines and breaks the lines into pages. &latex; is in “math mode” when it’s generating a mathematical formula. In “LR mode”, as in paragraph mode, &latex; considers the output that it produces to be a string of words with spaces between them. However, unlike paragraph mode, &latex; keeps going from left to right; it never starts a new line in LR mode. Even if you put a hundred words into an `\mbox`, &latex; would keep typesetting them from left to right inside a single box, and then complain because the resulting box was too wide to fit on the line.

&latex; is in LR mode when it starts making a box with an `\mbox` command. You can get it to enter a different mode inside the box - for example, you can make it enter math mode to put a formula in the box. There are also several text-producing commands and environments for making a box that put &latex; in paragraph mode. The box make by one of these commands or environments will be called a `parbox`. When &latex; is in paragraph mode while making a box, it is said to be in “inner paragraph mode”. Its normal paragraph mode, which it starts out in, is called “outer paragraph mode”.

## Page styles

The `\documentclass` command determines the size and position of the page’s head and foot. The page style determines what goes in them.

### `\maketitle`

The `\maketitle` command generates a title on a separate title page—except in the `article` class, where the title is placed at the top of the first page. Information used to produce the title is obtained from the following declarations:

`\author{name \and name2}`

  The `\author` command declares the document author(s), where the argument is a list of authors separated by `\and` commands. Use `\\` to separate lines within a single author’s entry—for example, to give the author’s institution or address.

`\date{text}`

  The `\date` command declares text to be the document’s date. With no `\date` command, the current date (see \today) is used.

`\thanks{text}`

  The `\thanks` command produces a `\footnote` to the title, usually used for credit acknowledgements.

`\title{text}`

  The `\title` command declares text to be the title of the document. Use `\\` to force a line break, as usual.

### `\pagenumbering`

Synopsis:

    \pagenumbering{style}

Specifies the style of page numbers, according to style:

`arabic`

  arabic numerals

`roman`

  lowercase Roman numerals

`Roman`

  uppercase Roman numerals

`alph`

  lowercase letters

`Alph`

  uppercase letters

### `\pagestyle`

Synopsis:

    \pagestyle{style}

The `\pagestyle` command specifies how the headers and footers are typeset from the current page onwards. Values for style:

`plain`

  Just a plain page number.

`empty`

  Empty headers and footers, e.g., no page numbers.

`headings`

  Put running headers on each page. The document style specifies what goes in the headers.

`myheadings`

  Custom headers, specified via the `\markboth` or the `\markright` commands.

Here are the descriptions of `\markboth` and `\markright`:

`\markboth{left}{right}`

  Sets both the left and the right heading. A “left-hand heading” (left) is generated by the last `\markboth` command before the end of the page, while a “right-hand heading” (right) is generated by the first `\markboth` or `\markright` that comes on the page if there is one, otherwise by the last one before the page.

`\markright{right}`

  Sets the right heading, leaving the left heading unchanged.

### `\thispagestyle{style}`

The `\thispagestyle` command works in the same manner as the `\pagestyle` command (see previous section) except that it changes to style for the current page only.

## Spaces

&latex; has many ways to produce white (or filled) space.

Another space-producing command is `\,` to produce a “thin” space (usually 1/6quad). It can be used in text mode, but is more often useful in math mode (see Spacing in math mode).

### `\hspace`

Synopsis:

    \hspace[*]{length}

The `\hspace` command adds horizontal space. The length argument can be expressed in any terms that &latex; understands: points, inches, etc. It is a rubber length. You can add both negative and positive space with an `\hspace` command; adding negative space is like backspacing.

&latex; normally removes horizontal space that comes at the beginning or end of a line. To preserve this space, use the optional `*` form.

### `\hfill`

The `\hfill` fill command produces a “rubber length” which has no natural space but can stretch or shrink horizontally as far as needed.

The `\fill` parameter is the rubber length itself (technically, the glue value ‘`0pt plus1fill`’); thus, `\hspace\fill` is equivalent to `\hfill`.

### `\SPACE`

The `\` (space) command produces a normal interword space. It’s useful after punctuation which shouldn’t end a sentence. For example `Knuth's article in Proc.\ Amer.\ Math\. Soc.\ is fundamental`. It is also often used after control sequences, as in `\TeX\ is a nice system.`

In normal circumstances, `\`tab and `\`newline are equivalent to `\` .

### `\@`

The `\@` command makes the following punctuation character end a sentence even if it normally would not. This is typically used after a capital letter. Here are side-by-side examples with and without `\@`:

    … in C\@. Pascal, though …
    … in C. Pascal, though …

produces

> … in C. Pascal, though …

> … in C. Pascal, though …

### `\thinspace`

`\thinspace` produces an unbreakable and unstretchable space that is 1/6 of an em. This is the proper space to use in nested quotes, as in ’”.

### `\/`

The `\/` command produces an italic correction. This is a small space defined by the font designer for a given character, to avoid the character colliding with whatever follows. The italic f character typically has a large italic correction value.

If the following character is a period or comma, it’s not necessary to insert an italic correction, since those punctuation symbols have a very small height. However, with semicolons or colons, as well as normal letters, it can help. Compare f: f; (in the &tex; output, the ‘f’s are nicely separated) with f: f;.

Despite the name, roman characters can also have an italic correction. Compare pdf&tex; (in the &tex; output, there is a small space after the ‘f’) with pdf&tex;.

### `\hrulefill`

The `\hrulefill` fill command produces a “rubber length” which can stretch or shrink horizontally. It will be filled with a horizontal rule.

### `\dotfill`

The `\dotfill` command produces a “rubber length” that fills with dots instead of just white space.

### `\addvspace`

`\addvspace{length}`

The `\addvspace` command normally adds a vertical space of height length. However, if vertical space has already been added to the same point in the output by a previous `\addvspace` command, then this command will not add more space than needed to make the natural length of the total vertical space equal to `length`.

### `\bigskip \medskip \smallskip`

These commands produce a given amount of space.

`\bigskip`

  The same as `\vspace{bigskipamount}`, ordinarily about one line space (with stretch and shrink).

`\medskip`

  The same as `\vspace{medskipamount}`, ordinarily about half of a line space (with stretch and shrink).

`\smallskip`

  The same as `\vspace{smallskipamount}`, ordinarily about a quarter of a line space (with stretch and shrink).

The `\...amount` parameters are determined by the document class.

### `\vfill`

The `\vfill` fill command produces a rubber length (glue) which can stretch or shrink vertically as far as needed. It’s equivalent to `\vspace{\fill}` (see \hfill).

### `\vspace[*]{length}`

Synopsis:

    \vspace[*]{length}

The `\vspace` command adds the vertical space length, i.e., a rubber length. length can be negative or positive.

Ordinarily, &latex; removes vertical space added by `\vspace` at the top or bottom of a page. With the optional `*` argument, the space is not removed.

## Boxes

All the predefined length parameters (see Predefined lengths) can be used in the arguments of the box-making commands.

### `\mbox{text}`

The `\mbox` command creates a box just wide enough to hold the text created by its argument. The text is not broken into lines, so it can be used to prevent hyphenation.

### `\fbox` and `\framebox`

Synopses:

    \fbox{text}
    \framebox[width][position]{text}

The `\fbox` and `\framebox` commands are like `\mbox`, except that they put a frame around the outside of the box being created.

In addition, the `\framebox` command allows for explicit specification of the box width with the optional width argument (a dimension), and positioning with the optional position argument.

Both commands produce a rule of thickness `\fboxrule` (default ‘`.4pt`’), and leave a space of `\fboxsep` (default ‘`3pt`’) between the rule and the contents of the box.

See \framebox (picture), for the `\framebox` command in the `picture` environment.

### `lrbox`

`\begin{lrbox}{cmd} text \end{lrbox}`

This is the environment form of `\sbox`.

The text inside the environment is saved in the box `cmd`, which must have been declared with `\newsavebox`.

### `\makebox`

Synopsis:

    \makebox[width][position]{text}

The `\makebox` command creates a box just wide enough to contain the text specified. The width of the box is specified by the optional width argument. The position of the text within the box is determined by the optional position argument, which may take the following values:

`c`

  Centered (default).

`l`

  Flush left.

`r`

  Flush right.

`s`

  Stretch (justify) across entire width; text must contain stretchable space for this to work.

`\makebox` is also used within the picture environment see \makebox (picture).

### `\parbox`

Synopsis:

    \parbox[position][height][inner-pos]{width}{text}

The `\parbox` command produces a box whose contents are created in `paragraph` mode. It should be used to make a box small pieces of text, with nothing fancy inside. In particular, you shouldn’t use any paragraph-making environments inside a `\parbox` argument. For larger pieces of text, including ones containing a paragraph-making environment, you should use a `minipage` environment (see minipage).

`\parbox` has two mandatory arguments:

width

  the width of the parbox;

text

  the text that goes inside the parbox.

The optional position argument allows you to align either the top or bottom line in the parbox with the baseline of the surrounding text (default is top).

The optional height argument overrides the natural height of the box.

The inner-pos argument controls the placement of the text inside the box, as follows; if it is not specified, position is used.

`t`

  text is placed at the top of the box.

`c`

  text is centered in the box.

`b`

  text is placed at the bottom of the box.

`s`

  stretch vertically; the text must contain vertically stretchable space for this to work.

### `\raisebox`

Synopsis:

    \raisebox{distance}[height][depth]{text}

The `\raisebox` command raises or lowers text. The first mandatory argument specifies how high text is to be raised (or lowered if it is a negative amount). text itself is processed in LR mode.

The optional arguments height and depth are dimensions. If they are specified, &latex; treats text as extending a certain distance above the baseline (height) or below (depth), ignoring its natural height and depth.

### `\savebox`

Synopsis:

    \savebox{\boxcmd}[width][pos]{text}

This command typeset text in a box just as with `\makebox` (see \makebox), except that instead of printing the resulting box, it saves it in the box labeled \boxcmd, which must have been declared with `\newsavebox` (see \newsavebox).

### `\sbox{\boxcmd}{text}`

Synopsis:

    \sbox{\boxcmd}{text}

`\sbox` types text in a box just as with `\mbox` (see \mbox) except that instead of the resulting box being included in the normal output, it is saved in the box labeled \boxcmd. \boxcmd must have been previously declared with `\newsavebox` (see \newsavebox).

### `\usebox{\boxcmd`

Synopsis:

    \usebox{\boxcmd}

`\usebox` produces the box most recently saved in the bin \boxcmd by a `\savebox` command (see \savebox).

## Special insertions

&latex; provides commands for inserting characters that have a special meaning do not correspond to simple characters you can type.

### Reserved characters

The following characters play a special role in &latex; and are called “reserved characters” or “special characters”.

    # $ % & ~ _ ^ \ { }

Whenever you write one of these characters into your file, &latex; will do something special. If you simply want the character to be printed as itself, include a `\` in front of the character. For example, `\$` will produce `$` in your output.

One exception to this rule is `\` itself, because `\\` has its own special (context-dependent) meaning. A roman \ is produced by typing `$\backslash$` in your file, and a typewriter `\` is produced by using ‘`\`’ in a verbatim command (see verbatim).

Also, `\~` and `\^` place tilde and circumflex accents over the following letter, as in õ and ô (see Accents); to get a standalone `~` or `^`, you can again use a verbatim command.

Finally, you can access any character of the current font once you know its number by using the `\symbol` command. For example, the visible space character used in the `\verb*` command has the code decimal 32, so it can be typed as `\symbol{32}`.

You can also specify octal numbers with `'` or hexadecimal numbers with `"`, so the previous example could also be written as `\symbol{'40}` or `\symbol{"20}`.

### Text symbols

&latex; provides commands to generate a number of non-letter symbols in running text. Some of these, especially the more obscure ones, are not available in OT1; you may need to load the `textcomp` package.

`\copyright`
`\textcopyright`

  The copyright symbol, ©.

`\dag`

  The dagger symbol (in text).

`\ddag`

  The double dagger symbol (in text).

`\LaTeX`

  The &latex; logo.

`\guillemotleft («)`
`\guillemotright (»)`
`\guilsinglleft (‹)`
`\guilsinglright (›)`

  Double and single angle quotation marks, commonly used in French: «, », ‹, ›.

`\ldots`
`\dots`
`\textellipsis`

  An ellipsis (three dots at the baseline): ‘…’. `\ldots` and `\dots` also work in math mode.

`\lq`

  Left (opening) quote: ‘.

`\P`
`\textparagraph`

  Paragraph sign (pilcrow).

`\pounds`
`\textsterling`

  English pounds sterling: £.

`\quotedblbase („)`
`\quotesinglbase (‚)`

  Double and single quotation marks on the baseline: „ and ‚.

`\rq`

  Right (closing) quote: ’.

`\S`

  Section symbol.

`\TeX`

  The &tex; logo.

`\textasciicircum`

  ASCII circumflex: ^.

`\textasciitilde`

  ASCII tilde: ~.

`\textasteriskcentered`

  Centered asterisk: *.

`\textbackslash`

  Backslash: \.

`\textbar`

  Vertical bar: |.

`\textbardbl`

  Double vertical bar.

`\textbigcircle`

  Big circle symbol.

`\textbraceleft`

  Left brace: {.

`\textbraceright`

  Right brace: }.

`\textbullet`

  Bullet: •.

`\textcircled{letter}`

  letter in a circle, as in ®.

`\textcompwordmark`
`\textcapitalwordmark`
`\textascenderwordmark`

  Composite word mark (invisible). The `\textcapital...` form has the cap height of the font, while the `\textascender...` form has the ascender height.

`\textdagger`

  Dagger: \dag.

`\textdaggerdbl`

  Double dagger: \ddag.

`\textdollar (or `$`)`

  Dollar sign: $.

`\textemdash (or `---`)`

  Em-dash: — (for punctuation).

`\textendash (or `--`)`

  En-dash: — (for ranges).

`\texteuro`

  The Euro symbol: €.

`\textexclamdown (or `!``)`

  Upside down exclamation point: ¡.

`\textgreater`

  Greater than: >.

`\textless`

  Less than: <.

`\textleftarrow`

  Left arrow.

`\textordfeminine`
`\textordmasculine`

  Feminine and masculine ordinal symbols: ª, º.

`\textperiodcentered`

  Centered period: \cdot.

`\textquestiondown (or `?``)`

  Upside down questionation point: ¿.

`\textquotedblleft (or ````)`

  Double left quote: “.

`\textquotedblright (or `'`)`

  Double right quote: ”.

`\textquoteleft (or ```)`

  Single left quote: ‘.

`\textquoteright (or `'`)`

  Single right quote: ’.

`\textquotestraightbase`
`\textquotestraightdblbase`

  Single and double straight quotes on the baseline.

`\textregistered`

  Registered symbol: ®.

`\textrightarrow`

  Right arrow.

`\textthreequartersemdash`

  “Three-quarters” em-dash, between en-dash and em-dash.

`\texttrademark`

  Trademark symbol: ^{\hbox{TM}}.

`\texttwelveudash`

  “Two-thirds” em-dash, between en-dash and em-dash.

`\textunderscore`

  Underscore: _.

`\textvisiblespace`

  Visible space symbol.

### Accents

&latex; has wide support for many of the world’s scripts and languages, through the `babel` package and related support. This section does not attempt to cover all that support. It merely lists the core &latex; commands for creating accented characters.

The `\capital...` commands produce alternative forms for use with capital letters. These are not available with OT1.

`\"`
`\capitaldieresis`

  Produces an umlaut (dieresis), as in ö.

`\'`
`\capitalacute`

  Produces an acute accent, as in ó. In the `tabbing` environment, pushes current column to the right of the previous column (see tabbing).

`\.`

  Produces a dot accent over the following, as in ȯ.

`\=`
`\capitalmacron`

  Produces a macron (overbar) accent over the following, as in ō.

`\^`
`\capitalcircumflex`

  Produces a circumflex (hat) accent over the following, as in ô.

`\``
`\capitalgrave`

  Produces a grave accent over the following, as in ò. In the `tabbing` environment, move following text to the right margin (see tabbing).

`\~`
`\capitaltilde`

  Produces a tilde accent over the following, as in ñ.

`\b`

  Produces a bar accent under the following, as in o_.

`\c`
`\capitalcedilla`

  Produces a cedilla accent under the following, as in ç.

`\d`
`\capitaldotaccent`

  Produces a dot accent under the following, as in ọ.

`\H`
`\capitalhungarumlaut`

  Produces a long Hungarian umlaut accent over the following, as in ő.

`\i`

  Produces a dotless i, as in ‘i’.

`\j`

  Produces a dotless j, as in ‘j’.

`\k`
`\capitalogonek`

  Produces a letter with ogonek, as in ‘ǫ’. Not available in the OT1 encoding.

`\r`
`\capitalring`

  Produces a ring accent, as in ‘o*’.

`\t`
`\capitaltie`
`\newtie`
`\capitalnewtie`

  Produces a tie-after accent, as in ‘oo[’. The `\newtie` form is centered in its box.

`\u`
`\capitalbreve`

  Produces a breve accent, as in ‘ŏ’.

`\underbar`

  Not exactly an accent, this produces a bar under the argument text. The argument is always processed in horizontal mode. The bar is always a fixed position under the baseline, thus crossing through descenders. See also `\underline` in Math miscellany.

`\v`
`\capitalcaron`

  Produces a háček (check, caron) accent, as in ‘ǒ’.

### Non-English characters

Here are the basic &latex; commands for inserting characters commonly used in languages other than English.

`\aa`
`\AA`

  å and Å.

`\ae`
`\AE`

  æ and Æ.

`\dh`
`\DH`

  Icelandic letter eth: ð and Ð.

`\dj`
`\DJ`

  xxxx

`\ij`
`\IJ`

  ij and IJ (except somewhat closer together than appears here).

`\l`
`\L`

  ł and Ł.

`\ng`
`\NG`

  xxxx

`\o`
`\O`

  ø and Ø.

`\oe`
`\OE`

  œ and Œ.

`\ss`
`\SS`

  ß and SS.

`\th`
`\TH`

  Icelandic letter thorn: þ and Þ.

### `\rule`

Synopsis:

    \rule[raise]{width}{thickness}

The `\rule` command produces rules, that is, lines or rectangles. The arguments are:

raise

  How high to raise the rule (optional).

width

  The length of the rule (mandatory).

thickness

  The thickness of the rule (mandatory).

### `\today`

The `\today` command produces today’s date, in the format ‘`month dd, yyyy`’; for example, ‘July 4, 1976’. It uses the predefined counters `\day`, `\month`, and `\year` (see \day \month \year) to do this. It is not updated as the program runs.

The `datetime` package, among others, can produce a wide variety of other date formats.

## Splitting the input

A large document requires a lot of input. Rather than putting the whole input in a single large file, it’s more efficient to split it into several smaller ones. Regardless of how many separate files you use, there is one that is the root file; it is the one whose name you type when you run &latex;.

See filecontents, for an environment that allows bundling an external file to be created with the main document.

### `\include`

Synopsis:

    \include{file}

If no `\includeonly` command is present, the `\include` command executes `\clearpage` to start a new page (see \clearpage), then reads file, then does another `\clearpage`.

Given an `\includeonly` command, the `\include` actions are only run if file is listed as an argument to `\includeonly`. See the next section.

The `\include` command may not appear in the preamble or in a file read by another `\include` command.

### \`includeonly`

Synopsis:

    \includeonly{file1,file2,...}

The `\includeonly` command controls which files will be read by subsequent `\include` commands. The list of filenames is comma-separated. Each file must exactly match a filename specified in a `\include` command for the selection to be effective.

This command can only appear in the preamble.

### \input

Synopsis:

    \input{file}

The `\input` command causes the specified file to be read and processed, as if its contents had been inserted in the current file at that point.

If file does not end in ‘`.tex`’ (e.g., ‘`foo`’ or ‘`foo.bar`’), it is first tried with that extension (‘`foo.tex`’ or ‘`foo.bar.tex`’). If that is not found, the original file is tried (‘`foo`’ or ‘`foo.bar`’).

## Front/back matter

### Tables of contents

A table of contents is produced with the `\tableofcontents` command. You put the command right where you want the table of contents to go; &latex; does the rest for you. A previous run must have generated a `.toc` file.

The `\tableofcontents` command produces a heading, but it does not automatically start a new page. If you want a new page after the table of contents, write a `\newpage` command after the `\tableofcontents` command.

The analogous commands `\listoffigures` and `\listoftables` produce a list of figures and a list of tables, respectively. Everything works exactly the same as for the table of contents.

The command `\nofiles` overrides these commands, and prevents any of these lists from being generated.

#### \addcontentsline

The `\addcontentsline`{ext}{unit}{text} command adds an entry to the specified list or table where:

ext

  The extension of the file on which information is to be written, typically one of: `toc` (table of contents), `lof` (list of figures), or `lot` (list of tables).

unit

  The name of the sectional unit being added, typically one of the following, matching the value of the ext argument:

  `toc`

    The name of the sectional unit: `part`, `chapter`, `section`, `subsection`, `subsubsection`.

  `lof`

    For the list of figures.

  `lot`

    For the list of tables.

entry

  The actual text of the entry.

What is written to the `.ext` file is the command `\contentsline{unit}{name}`.

#### \addtocontents

The `\addtocontents`{ext}{text} command adds text (or formatting commands) directly to the `.ext` file that generates the table of contents or lists of figures or tables.

ext

  The extension of the file on which information is to be written: `toc` (table of contents), `lof` (list of figures), or `lot` (list of tables).

text

  The text to be written.

### Glossaries

The command `\makeglossary` enables creating glossaries.

The command `\glossary{text}` writes a glossary entry for text to an auxiliary file with the `.glo` extension.

Specifically, what gets written is the command `\glossaryentry{text}{pageno}`, where pageno is the current `\thepage` value.

The `glossary` package on CTAN provides support for fancier glossaries.

### Indexes

The command `\makeindex` enables creating indexes. Put this in the preamble.

The command `\index{text}` writes an index entry for text to an auxiliary file with the `.idx` extension.

Specifically, what gets written is the command `\indexentry{text}{pageno}`, where pageno is the current `\thepage` value.

To generate a index entry for ‘bar’ that says ‘See foo’, use a vertical bar: `\index{bar|see{foo}}`. Use `seealso` instead of `see` to make a ‘See also’ entry.

The text ‘See’ is defined by the macro `\seename`, and ‘See also’ by the macro `\alsoname`. These can be redefined for other languages.

The generated `.idx` file is then sorted with an external command, usually either `makeindex` (http://mirror.ctan.org/indexing/makeindex) or (the multi-lingual) `xindy` (http://xindy.sourceforge.net). This results in a `.ind` file, which can then be read to typeset the index.

The index is usually generated with the `\printindex` command. This is defined in the `makeidx` package, so `\usepackage{makeidx}` needs to be in the preamble.

The rubber length `\indexspace` is inserted before each new letter in the printed index; its default value is ‘`10pt plus5pt minus3pt`’.

The `showidx` package causes each index entries to be shown in the margin on the page where the entry appears. This can help in preparing the index.

The `multind` package supports multiple indexes. See also the &tex; FAQ entry on this topic, http://www.tex.ac.uk/cgi-bin/texfaq2html?label=multind.

## Letters

You can use &latex; to typeset letters, both personal and business. The `letter` document class is designed to make a number of letters at once, although you can make just one if you so desire.

Your `.tex` source file has the same minimum commands as the other document classes, i.e., you must have the following commands as a minimum:

     \documentclass{letter}
     \begin{document}
      ... letters ...
     \end{document}

Each letter is a `letter` environment, whose argument is the name and address of the recipient. For example, you might have:

     \begin{letter}{Mr. Joe Smith\\ 2345 Princess St.
          \\ Edinburgh, EH1 1AA}
       ...
     \end{letter}

The letter itself begins with the `\opening` command. The text of the letter follows. It is typed as ordinary &latex; input. Commands that make no sense in a letter, like `\chapter`, do not work. The letter closes with a `\closing` command.

After the `closing`, you can have additional material. The `\cc` command produces the usual “cc: …”. There’s also a similar `\encl` command for a list of enclosures. With both these commands, use `\\` to separate the items.

These commands are used with the `letter` class.

### \address{return-address}

The `\address` specifies the return address of a letter, as it should appear on the letter and the envelope. Separate lines of the address should be separated by `\\` commands.

If you do not make an `\address` declaration, then the letter will be formatted for copying onto your organisation’s standard letterhead. (See Overview, for details on your local implementation). If you give an `\address` declaration, then the letter will be formatted as a personal letter.

### `\cc`

Synopsis:

    \cc{name1\\name2}

Produce a list of names the letter was copied to. Each name is printed on a separate line.

### `\closing`

Synopsis:

    \closing{text}

A letter closes with a `\closing` command, for example,

    \closing{Best Regards,}

### `\encl`

Synopsis:

    \encl{line1\\line2}

Declare a list of one more enclosures.

### `\location`

`\location{address}`

This modifies your organisation’s standard address. This only appears if the `firstpage` pagestyle is selected.

### `\makelabels`

`\makelabels{number}`

If you issue this command in the preamble, &latex; will create a sheet of address labels. This sheet will be output before the letters.

### `\name`

`\name{June Davenport}`

Your name, used for printing on the envelope together with the return address.

### `\opening{text}`

Synopsis:

    \opening{text}

A letter begins with the `\opening` command. The mandatory argument, text, is whatever text you wish to start your letter. For instance:

    \opening{Dear Joe,}

### `\ps`

Use the `\ps` command to start a postscript in a letter, after `\closing`.

### `\signature{text}`

Your name, as it should appear at the end of the letter underneath the space for your signature. `\\` starts a new line within text as usual.

### `\startbreaks`

`\startbreaks`

Used after a `\stopbreaks` command to allow page breaks again.

### `\stopbreaks`

`\stopbreaks`

Inhibit page breaks until a `\startbreaks` command occurs.

### `\telephone`

`\telephone{number}`

This is your telephone number. This only appears if the `firstpage` pagestyle is selected.

## Terminal input/output

### `\typein[cmd]{msg}`

Synopsis:

    \typein[\cmd]{msg}

`\typein` prints msg on the terminal and causes &latex; to stop and wait for you to type a line of input, ending with return. If the optional \cmd argument is omitted, the typed input is processed as if it had been included in the input file in place of the `\typein` command. If the \cmd argument is present, it must be a command name. This command name is then defined or redefined to be the typed input.

### `\typeout{msg}`

Synopsis:

    \typeout{msg}

Prints `msg` on the terminal and in the `log` file. Commands in `msg` that are defined with `\newcommand` or `\renewcommand` (among others) are replaced by their definitions before being printed.

&latex;’s usual rules for treating multiple spaces as a single space and ignoring spaces after a command name apply to `msg`. A `\space` command in `msg` causes a single space to be printed, independent of surrounding spaces. A `^^J` in `msg` prints a newline.

## Command line

The input file specification indicates the file to be formatted; &tex; uses `.tex` as a default file extension. If you omit the input file entirely, &tex; accepts input from the terminal. You specify command options by supplying a string as a parameter to the command; e.g.

    latex '\nonstopmode\input foo.tex'

will process `foo.tex` without pausing after every error.

If &latex; stops in the middle of the document and gives you a ‘`*`’ prompt, it is waiting for input. You can type `\stop` (and return) and it will prematurely end the document.

## Document templates

Although not reference material, perhaps these document templates will be useful. Additional template resources are listed http://tug.org/interest.html#latextemplates.

### `book` template

    \documentclass{book}
    \title{Book Class Template}
    \author{Alex Author}

    \begin{document}
    \maketitle

    \chapter{First}
    Some text.

    \chapter{Second}
    Some other text.

    \section{A subtopic}
    The end.
    \end{document}

### `beamer` template

The `beamer` class creates slides presentations.

    \documentclass{beamer}

    \title{Beamer Class template}
    \author{Alex Author}
    \date{July 31, 2007}

    \begin{document}

    \maketitle

    % without [fragile], any {verbatim} code gets mysterious errors.
    \begin{frame}[fragile]
     \frametitle{First Slide}

    \begin{verbatim}
      This is \verbatim!
    \end{verbatim}

    \end{frame}

    \end{document}

One web resource for this: http://robjhyndman.com/hyndsight/beamer/.

### `tugboat` template

TUGboat is the journal of the &tex; Users Group, http://tug.org/TUGboat.

    \documentclass{ltugboat}
    \usepackage{graphicx}
    \usepackage{ifpdf}
    \ifpdf
    \usepackage[breaklinks,hidelinks]{hyperref}
    \else
    \usepackage{url}
    \fi

    \title{Example \TUB\ article}

    % repeat info for each author.
    \author{First Last}
    \address{Street Address \\ Town, Postal \\ Country}
    \netaddress{user (at) example dot org}
    \personalURL{http://example.org/~user/}

    \begin{document}

    \maketitle

    \begin{abstract}
    This is an example article for \TUB{}.
    \end{abstract}

    \section{Introduction}

    This is an example article for \TUB, from
    \url{http://tug.org/TUGboat/location.html}.

    We recommend the graphicx package for image inclusions, and the
    hyperref package for active url's (in the \acro{PDF} output).
    Nowadays \TUB\ is produced using \acro{PDF} files exclusively.

    The \texttt{ltugboat} class provides these abbreviations and many more:

    % verbatim blocks are often better in \small
    \begin{verbatim}[\small]
    \AllTeX \AMS \AmS \AmSLaTeX \AmSTeX \aw \AW
    \BibTeX \CTAN \DTD \HTML
    \ISBN \ISSN \LaTeXe
    \Mc \mf \MFB \mtex \PCTeX \pcTeX
    \PiC \PiCTeX \plain \POBox \PS
    \SC \SGML \SliTeX \TANGLE \TB \TP
    \TUB \TUG \tug
    \UG \UNIX \VAX \XeT \WEB \WEAVE

    \Dash \dash \vellipsis \bull \cents \Dag
    \careof \thinskip

    \acro{FRED} -> {\small[er] fred}  % please use!
    \cs{fred}   -> \fred
    \env{fred}  -> \begin{fred}
    \meta{fred} -> <fred>
    \nth{n}     -> 1st, 2nd, ...
    \sfrac{3/4} -> 3/4
    \booktitle{Book of Fred}
    \end{verbatim}

    For more information, see the ltubguid document at:
    \url{http://mirror.ctan.org/macros/latex/contrib/tugboat}
    (we recommend using \verb|mirror.ctan.org| for \CTAN\ references).

    Email \verb|tugboat@tug.org| if problems or questions.

    \bibliographystyle{plain}  % we recommend the plain bibliography style
    \nocite{book-minimal}      % just making the bibliography non-empty
    \bibliography{xampl}       % xampl.bib comes with BibTeX

    \makesignature
    \end{document}

## Concept Index

## Command Index